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作者简介:

赵友亮,1997,男,硕士研究生。主要研究方向为水下激光焊接与仿真。E-mail: 13608608237@163.com;

赵晓鑫,1987,男,博士,讲师,硕士研究生导师,无损检测工程师。主要研究方向为焊接过程温度场与残余应力仿真、水下焊接与修复和无损检测等。E-mail: 0020200041@bipt.edu.cn

通讯作者:

朱加雷,1981,男,博士,教授。主要研究方向为水下焊接、激光成形加工和增材制造等。E-mail: zhujialei@bipt.edu.cn

中图分类号:TG456

DOI:10.11933/j.issn.1007-9289.20230831002

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目录contents

    摘要

    核电站乏燃料池长时间服役后因腐蚀产生裂纹、孔洞等缺陷,影响安全运行,但对水下环境焊接修复的研究较少。采用 ER-2209 双相不锈钢实心焊丝完成空气环境和水下环境 304 不锈钢密封堆焊层的制备。结果表明:堆焊层表面成形连续均匀,无裂纹、夹渣、焊瘤和咬边等缺陷。堆焊层内的微观组织包含双相不锈钢组织以及奥氏体不锈钢组织,且两者之间呈区域性分布。堆焊层横向拉伸试件的应力应变曲线抗拉强度高于母材,变形过程中诱发马氏体相变,使得母材的应力应变曲线后段的强度提高,总体伸长率高于堆焊层。在焊道间熔合处,奥氏体晶粒的结晶取向发生偏转,焊道的织构强度增强,两种环境中顶部横向拉伸试件呈现出较高的抗拉强度和较低的伸长率。由于水下环境的快冷作用促使双相不锈钢组织中的δ晶粒向γ的转变受到抑制,存在晶粒度较大的δ晶粒,δ铁素体的层错能较高,堆焊层硬度提高;快冷作用促使奥氏体不锈钢组织中生成大量沿奥氏体晶界分布的板条状铁素体,板条状铁素体区域性分布,提高了奥氏体不锈钢组织的硬度。堆焊层的极化曲线中可以观察到明显的钝化区间,堆焊层具备较好的耐腐蚀性能。分别在空气环境和水下环境制备了 304L 不锈钢堆焊层,研究了堆焊层的宏观形貌、微观组织和物相组成,分析了堆焊层的力学性能、显微硬度和耐腐蚀性能,研究结果对 304L 不锈钢浅表裂纹修复工程有重要作用。

    Abstract

    Nuclear energy has been recognized as one of the best options for meeting the growing demand for electricity. Currently, the cladding of the spent fuel pool of a second-generation nuclear power plant is made of 304L stainless steel. Corrosion cracks, pitting corrosion, and other defects are inevitable because of long-term immersion in a boric acid environment. As the defects further expand, they penetrate the entire stainless-steel wall panel, which may lead to leakage of the spent fuel pool and pose major safety concerns. Spent fuel is radioactive; therefore, construction personnel cannot work in such an environment. Therefore, welding repair in an underwater environment is particularly important. However, relatively little research has been conducted worldwide on welding repair in underwater environments. In this study, an ER-2209 duplex stainless-steel solid welding wire was used to prepare a sealed surface layer on 304 L stainless steel in both air and underwater environments. The results showed that the weld bead formations on the surface of the surfacing layer were continuous and uniform, without defects such as cracks, slag inclusions, weld beadings, or undercuts. The microstructure inside the surfacing layer includes both duplex and austenitic stainless steels, with a regional distribution between the two. The proportion of δ grains in the microstructure of duplex stainless steel in the rapid cooling mode was high, the grain size was large, and a large amount of SF precipitated from austenitic stainless steel. The tensile strength obtained from the stress–strain curve of the transverse tensile specimen of the overlay layer was higher than that of the BM. A martensitic transformation was induced during the deformation process, which increased the strength of the fracture after the stress–strain curve of the BM, and the overall elongation was greater than that of the overlay layer. The crystalline orientation of the austenite grains was deflected at the fusion point between the weld beads and the texture strength of the weld bead was enhanced. In both environments, the top transverse tensile specimen exhibited higher tensile strength and lower elongation. Owing to the rapid cooling effect of the underwater environment, the microstructure of duplex stainless steel, δ, and grain orientation, γ, underwent a suppressed transformation, which resulted in larger grain sizes (δ). The stacking fault energy of ferrite was higher, and the hardness of the surfacing layer increased. Rapid cooling promotes the formation of a large amount of flat noodle ferrite distributed along the austenite grain boundaries in austenitic stainless-steel structures. Flat noodle ferrite is distributed regionally, which improves the hardness of austenitic stainless-steel structures. The self-corrosion current density of A1 in the activation zone was close to that of the base material, whereas W1 had a higher self-corrosion current density. This is because of the rapid cooling rate during underwater welding, which causes insufficient phase transformation of the weld microstructure and suppresses the diffusion of the corresponding chemical elements. A clear passivation range was observed in the polarization curve, and the surface layer exhibited good corrosion resistance. 304L stainless-steel surfacing layers were prepared in both air and underwater environments. The macroscopic morphology, microstructure, and phase composition of the surfacing layer were studied, and the mechanical properties, microhardness, and corrosion resistance of the surfacing layer were analyzed. This research plays an important role in the shallow crack repair process of 304L stainless steel, which has laid a solid theoretical and practical foundation for the practical engineering application of underwater laser welding.

  • 0 前言

  • 304L 不锈钢具有优良的力学性能和耐腐蚀性能[1],广泛应用于核电工程、海洋工程和制药设备等行业[2-3]。目前国内服役的第二代核电站乏燃料池的不锈钢覆板主要采用 304 或 304L 不锈钢,不锈钢壁板长期浸泡在硼酸环境中[4-6],会出现凹坑腐蚀、孔洞、裂纹等缺陷,随着缺陷的进一步扩大,其会贯穿整个不锈钢壁板,也可能会导致乏燃料池泄漏,进而引发其他重大的安全事故[7-8]。为了降低维修成本,对裂纹进行远程水下原位修复是最佳选择[9-10]。激光焊接具有高深熔比、优异的焊接稳定性以及能量可远距离传输等优点,成为水下焊接应用的研究热点[11-12]。而双相不锈钢(DSS)因由铁素体(δ)和奥氏体(γ)组成的平衡微观结构以及高含量的合金元素,使其具有较好的耐腐蚀性能和优良的力学性能[13]被视为奥氏体不锈钢的可行替代品[14],在三代核电站的建造中大范围运用。

  • MORITA 等[15]以 304 不锈钢为基底材料,690 合金为熔覆金属,完成了全位置的水下两层多道的堆焊,焊缝外观良好,具有金属光泽,无明显缺陷。 LI 等[16]将局部干法水下激光熔覆和局部干法水下激光重熔技术相结合,对水下环境制备的双相不锈钢涂层进行重熔处理,研究了不同激光功率重熔后涂层的物相组成、微观组织、化学成分和耐腐蚀性能,发现 3 kW 激光重熔后的涂层耐腐蚀性能最佳。哈尔滨工业大学采用自研的气体保护喷嘴进行了 304 不锈钢[17]的局部干式水下激光焊接,研究了背面保护的气体流量,焊接速度和送丝速度焦点位置等因素对焊缝外观、微观组织、力学性能的影响,通过对相应工艺参数进行优化,水下环境焊接接头的力学性能接近空气环境焊接接头。LUO 等[18]以空气作为辅助气体对 cp-Ti 进行局部干法水下激光焊接,获得了完整且有光泽的焊缝,水下环境对焊缝的截面形态不产生影响,引起焊缝氧化的主要原因是焊接周围的水受热蒸发后进入熔池以及辅助气体中的氧气与熔池中的金属发生氧化反应。此外,快冷作用下生成的针状马氏体导致焊缝硬化,通过提高焊接速度可有效降低焊缝的显微硬度。HUANG 等[19]研究了激光功率、焊接速度、离焦距离和气体流速对焊接弯曲变形的影响,通过数字图像技术确定焊后的焊缝弯曲变形,对空气中和水下环境焊接弯曲变形进行比较,发现同样形状的焊接试样,空气环境中焊缝宽度较宽,焊缝弯曲变形量更大。

  • 由于 304L 不锈钢底面覆板的厚度为 6 mm,壁面厚度为 4 mm,板厚较薄,通常采用密封堆焊[15] 或者补板堆焊[20]的修复方式对裂纹处进行修复。本文针对 304L 不锈钢的浅表裂纹修复需求,分别在常压水下环境和空气环境,采用双相不锈钢焊丝在 304L 不锈钢表面制备密封堆焊层,并对堆焊层的微观组织、力学性能以及耐腐蚀性能进行相应的研究。

  • 1 材料与方法

  • 1.1 试验材料

  • 试验采用 304L 奥氏体不锈钢作为母材,尺寸为 400 mm×200 mm×6 mm(长×宽×厚),焊丝牌号为 ER-2209,直径为 1.0 mm,化学成分(质量分数)见表1。

  • 表1 304 不锈钢及 ER-2209 焊丝化学成分(质量分数 / wt.%)

  • Table1 Chemical composition of 304L stainless steel and ER-2209 welding wire (wt.%)

  • 1.2 试验设备

  • 试验系统所用激光器为锐科 RFL-C15000TZ 光纤激光器,激光波长 1 080 nm,功率稳定性 1.5%。自制激光头固定在三轴移动平台上,激光头下部出光镜片设置有同轴保护气刀,用以防止飞溅和等离子体等污染出光镜片,同轴气刀通入高压保护气体,激光头下方的气体溢流罩用于增加保护气停留时间。保护气为氮气,激光焊接试验系统如图1 所示。

  • 图1 激光焊接试验系统

  • Fig.1 Laser welding experimental system

  • 1.3 焊接工艺

  • 空气环境和局部干法水下环境激光填丝焊接工艺参数见表2,水下环境试验水深 100 mm,沉积路径示意图如图2 所示,通过大量正交试验,发现 2 / 3 搭接率(偏移量/单道焊缝宽度)时能够实现焊缝良好的搭接,过小或过大的偏移量均不能使堆焊层实现有效的搭接,影响焊缝形貌。文中工艺参数对应的单道焊缝宽度为 7.5 mm,故偏移量为 5 mm。

  • 表2 激光填丝焊接工艺参数

  • Fig.2 Laser wire filling welding process parameters

  • 图2 沉积路径示意图

  • Fig.2 Schematic diagram of the deposition path.

  • 1.4 检测试样取样

  • 试验完成后沿沉积方向取纵向拉伸试样,垂直于沉积方向取横向拉伸试样,自堆焊层顶部至母材取 4 层拉伸试样,用以分析堆焊层顶部至母材的力学性能变化。沿堆焊层横向截取金相试样,采用光学显微镜进行微观组织分析。使用 X 射线衍射仪分析堆焊层顶部、中部及母材的物相组成,通过电化学试验测定母材和焊缝的耐腐蚀性能,相应测试件取件图如图3 所示。

  • 图3 测试试件取件图

  • Fig.3 Test specimen pickup drawing.

  • 2 分析与讨论

  • 2.1 宏观形貌

  • 图4 所示为堆焊层的宏观形貌,外观均匀连续,无裂纹、夹渣、焊瘤和咬边等缺陷。焊道间熔合线清晰,说明焊接工艺的稳定性较好;与空气环境中所得堆焊层相比,由于水下环境焊接时排水装置内部充满保护气体,有效避免焊缝的氧化,水下堆焊层的光泽度较高。

  • 图4 堆焊层外观

  • Fig.4 Appearance of surfacing laye.

  • 图5 显示了堆焊层宏观截面,空气环境堆焊层 (图5a)道间上表面的平整度优于水下环境堆焊层 (图5b),这是由于水下环境中熔池的焊后冷却速度加快,熔池的流动性下降,未充分铺展;图6 显示了堆焊层的余高和熔深,空气环境中所得堆焊层余高和熔深的平均值分别为 0.90 和 2.12 mm,水下环境中所得堆焊层余高和熔深的平均值分别为 1.19 和 1.42 mm,相较之下,水下环境堆焊层的余高较高,熔深较低。随着沉积道数的增加,热量的积累使得焊缝的熔深增加,余高降低。通过观察堆焊层宏观截面,未发现明显的夹渣、裂纹和未熔合等缺陷,堆焊层与母材的冶金熔合良好。

  • 图5 堆焊层宏观截面

  • Fig.5 Macro section of overlay layer.

  • 图6 焊缝形貌参数

  • Fig.6 Weld morphology parameters.

  • 2.2 物相组成

  • 采用 X 射线衍射仪分析空气(A)和水下(W) 环境中堆焊层上部(A1、W1)、下部(A2、W2) 及母材的物相组成。图7 为 X 射线衍射结果,在 30°~90°的 2θ 衍射角度范围内分别存在 γ{(111)、 (200)、(220)、(311)}和 δ{(110)、(200)、(211)} 衍射峰。由于母材为奥氏体基体不锈钢,其奥氏体相中 γ(111)、γ(311)和 γ(200)峰的相对衍射强度较高,说明对应 γ 相的结晶取向一致性高。在堆焊层上部区域,A1 和 BM 中 γ(111)峰的相对衍射强度高于 W1,γ(220)的相对衍射强度低于 W1。在 A1 和 W1 中存在母材中不具备的 δ(200) 和 δ(211),说明堆焊层中存在不同于母材的铁素体相。与 A1 相比,A2 中 γ(111)的相对衍射强度有所下降,γ(220)的相对衍射强度有所上升,堆焊层同结晶取向的物相含量有所变化。与 W1 相比, W2 中除 γ(311)的相对衍射强度下降外,其余 γ 相的相对衍射强度均有所上升。

  • 2.3 微观组织

  • 图8 显示了堆焊层顶部、中部及底部的微观组织分布,堆焊层内同时包含双相不锈钢组织以及奥氏体不锈钢组织,双相不锈钢组织为生长在 δ 基体内的椭球状晶内奥氏体(IGA)、生长在 δ 边界的长条状晶界奥氏体(GBA)以及自 GBA 延伸至 δ 内部呈现出羽毛状的魏氏奥氏体(WA);奥氏体不锈钢组织以奥氏体(γ)为基体,冷却速度的不同产生板条状铁素体(SF)、等轴铁素体(IF)以及蠕虫状铁素体(CF)等较小的铁素体组织。与空气环境堆焊层顶部(图8 a)相比,在快冷模式下水下环境堆焊层顶部(图8b)的微观组织存在面积较大的 SF 和 IF 的块状聚集区,奥氏体组织的结晶取向较空气环境顶部更为混乱,这也是图7 中 W1 顶部 γ(111)相对衍射强度下降的原因。据文献[21]可知,双相不锈钢组织和奥氏体不锈钢组织呈现出较为明显的区域性,不发生混合。空气环境中堆焊层底部(图8e)的热影响区(HAZ)较水下环境 HAZ(图8f) 更宽,这是由于空气环境中焊接时,熔池的冷却速度更为缓慢,熔池对母材的热影响时间增加,造成了更大的热影响区域;水下环境焊接时,水冷作用下给予熔池冷却提供更高的温度梯度,在水下环境堆焊层的中部区域(图8d)奥氏体具有较强的结晶取向,对应图7 中 W2 的 γ(111)的相对衍射强度较 W1 有所上升,而空气环境堆焊层中部(图8c) 的结晶取向有所降低。水下环境堆焊层中部的 δ 晶粒较为粗大(图8d),这是由于快冷模式下,双相不锈钢组织中的 δ→γ 的转变受到抑制。在焊道间熔合处(图9),奥氏体晶粒的结晶取向发生偏转,焊道 n+1 对焊道 n 存在一定的再热作用,促使焊道 n+1 中析出大量的 IF,此区域晶界的数量大量增加,焊道的织构强度增强。

  • 图7 XRD 衍射结果

  • Fig.7 XRD diffraction result

  • 图8 不同环境激光填丝堆焊的微观组织

  • Fig.8 Microstructure of Laser Wire Filler Welding in Different Environments.

  • 图9 熔合线区域微观组织

  • Fig.9 Microstructure of the fusion line region

  • 2.4 力学性能

  • 自堆焊层顶部至底部依次取四层拉伸试件(编号 1 至 4 即为自上而下层数的编号),用以分析堆焊层自上而下的拉伸性能,为避免误差,横向和纵向的拉伸试件均取两组。拉伸试样尺寸示意如图10,拉伸试样实物如图11。图12 为不同环境堆焊层的横向拉伸应力应变曲线图,其中图12a 和 12 c 为空气环境,图12b 和图12d 为水下环境。两种环境中顶部横向拉伸试件(A1、C1)呈现出较高的抗拉强度和较低的伸长率,这是由于顶部的拉伸试件跨越了焊道的搭接熔合区,熔合区的晶界数量上升,织构较为复杂。拉伸试验时,力在织构强度较高位置处传递更为困难,滑移的难度提升,使得抗拉强度提高,当抗拉强度达到一定值时,内部较为薄弱位置处快速失效,发生断裂,相应的伸长率降低。第二层的拉伸试件(A2、C2)的伸长率相比第一层更高,表现出更高的韧性。空气环境中第三层(A3)为堆焊层和母材的混合,伸长率相比于第一层明显提高,空气环境中第三层以后的拉伸试件(A4)为 BM。堆焊层横向拉伸试件的应力应变曲线抗拉强度高于 BM,由于 304L 存在应变强化现象[22],变形过程中诱发马氏体相变,使得 BM 的应力应变曲线后段的强度提高,总体伸长率高于堆焊层。

  • 图10 拉伸试样尺寸示意图

  • Fig.10 Schematic diagram of tensile specimen size

  • 图11 拉伸试样实物图

  • Fig.11 Physical image of tensile specimen

  • 图13 所示为不同环境中堆焊层纵向拉伸应力应变曲线,可以看出两种环境中顶部纵向拉伸的伸长率较横向拉伸的伸长率有所提升。与横向拉伸试件相比,堆焊层纵向拉伸试件自上而下具有更好的一致性,不受焊道间熔合区域织构结构变化的影响。堆焊层顶部的横向力学性能与纵向拉伸性能存在一定的差异。横向拉伸应力图中空气环境和水下环境差异不大,但纵向拉伸应力图表明:随着塑性变形的增加,位错密度大幅提高,在环境堆焊层的断裂应变增强,这是由于水下环境受到快冷的影响,堆焊层中部的 δ 晶粒较为粗大。

  • 图12 横向拉伸应力应变图

  • Fig.12 Transverse tensile stress-strain diagram.

  • 图13 纵向拉伸应力应变图

  • Fig.13 Longitudinal tensile stress-strain diagram.

  • 图14 为堆焊层底部至顶部的硬度分布图,对微观硬度进行三次测量,求取平均值。测得 BM 的平均硬度为 197.5 HV,空气中堆焊层(A1)的平均硬度为 237.2 HV,水下堆焊层(W1)的平均硬度为 247.45 HV。水下环境堆焊层较空气下环境的快冷作用促使双相不锈钢组织中的 δ 晶粒向 γ 的转变受到抑制,存在晶粒度较大的 δ 晶粒,δ 铁素体的层错能较高[23],堆焊层硬度提高;快冷作用促使奥氏体不锈钢组织中生成大量沿奥氏体晶界分布的板条状铁素体,板条状铁素体区域性分布,提高了奥氏体不锈钢组织的硬度。在两种组织的共同作用下,水下堆焊层的硬度更高。

  • 图14 微观硬度分布图

  • Fig.14 Microscopic hardness distribution chart.

  • 2.5 耐腐蚀性能

  • 在三电极体系中测量堆焊层和母材耐腐蚀性能,得到如图15 所示的极化曲线,对极化曲线进行拟合,得到表3 中测试件在活化区内的自腐蚀电位Ecorr和自腐蚀电流 Icorr。BM 的 Ecorr为-99.764 mV, A 的 Ecorr为-110 mV,与母材的自腐蚀电位接近, W 的自腐蚀电位为-180.32 mV,略低于 BM 和 A。通常来说,Ecorr 的值越高,表明所搭建三电极体系越稳定,腐蚀倾向性小。A 在活化区的自腐蚀电流密度为 99 nA/cm2,与母材接近,W 的自腐蚀电流密度较高,这是由于水下环境焊接时,较快的冷却速度使得焊缝组织发生不充分相变,相应的化学元素扩散也受到抑制。所制备两种堆焊层的 Icorr 低于文献[24]所报道的值,具有更好的耐腐蚀性能。

  • 图15 极化曲线

  • Fig.15 Polarization curve.

  • 表3 自腐蚀电位和自腐蚀电流

  • Table3 Self-corrosion potential and self-corrosion current

  • 2.6 化学元素

  • 对两种环境制备堆焊层的化学元素进行测量,得到如表4 所示的测定结果,与母材和填充焊丝对比,堆焊层中的 N 含量升高,Ni 含量降低,在空气环境焊接时为防止氧化,在焊接区域持续吹入 N2,水下环境焊接时,排水罩内的排水气体(即保护气) 也是 N2,因此,在两种环境焊接过程中,少量 N 在熔池聚集,导致 N 含量的增加,N 作为间隙合金元素,可以增加塑性变形的各向异性,能够强烈的阻止位错的移动,改变位错密度,取代 Ni,稳定不锈钢的微观组织,利于增强钝化,扩大钝化区域,阻止应力腐蚀裂纹,抑制点蚀和晶间腐蚀[25]。在激光熔覆过程中形成氧化镍,氧化镍的熔点较低,会发生烧损,因此熔覆层中的 Ni 含量明显降低[26]。Cr 和 Mo 元素含量处于母材和填充焊丝之间。

  • 表4 化学元素含量

  • Table4 Chemical element content

  • 3 结论

  • 基于研制的水下激光焊接系统,采用 ER-2209 双相不锈钢焊丝开展空气环境和水下环境 304L 不锈钢表面密封堆焊层的制备,得到如下结论:

  • (1)堆焊层成形连续均匀,无裂纹、夹渣、焊瘤和咬边等缺陷,宏观截面中未发现冶金熔合不良现象。水下环境堆焊时,较快的传热加快了熔池的冷却速度,限制了熔池的流动和铺展。

  • (2)物相分析结果表明,在堆焊层上部区域,水下环境 γ(111)峰的相对衍射强度较低,γ(220) 的相对衍射强度较高;空气环境堆焊层下部 γ(111) 的相对衍射强度有所下降,γ(220)的相对衍射强度有所上升。

  • (3)堆焊层内的微观组织同时包含双相不锈钢组织以及奥氏体不锈钢组织,且两者之间呈区域性分布。快冷模式下双相不锈钢组织中 δ 晶粒占比高,晶粒度大,奥氏体不锈钢析出大量的 SF。

  • (4)两种环境顶部横向拉伸试件(A1、C1)呈现出较高的抗拉强度和较低的伸长率,第二层拉伸试件(A2、C2)的伸长率相比第一层更高,表现出更高的韧性。空气环境第三层仍存在堆焊层焊缝组织和母材组织的混合,伸长率相比于第一层明显提高。水下环境第三层以后的拉伸试件为 BM。堆焊层横向拉伸试件的应力应变曲线抗拉强度高于 BM,由于 304 存在应变强化现象,变形过程中诱发马氏体相变,使得 BM 的应力应变曲线后段的强度提高,总体伸长率高于堆焊层,抗拉强度低于母材。堆焊层纵向拉伸试件自上而下具有更好的一致性,不受焊道间熔合区域织构结构变化的影响。

  • (5)A1 在活化区的自腐蚀电流密度与母材接近,W1 的自腐蚀电流密度较高。这是由于水下环境焊接时,较快的冷却速度使得焊缝组织发生不充分相变,相应的化学元素扩散也受到抑制。在极化曲线中可以观察到明显的钝化区间,堆焊层具备较好的耐腐蚀性能。

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    • [3] VAIJAYANTH S,KOPPULA S,SATEESH N.et al.Effect of RF carbonitriding and improvement of mechanical properties on AISI 304 stainless steel-A review[J].Materials Today:Proceedings,2020,27:1655-1659.

    • [4] CONG S,RAN G,LI Y,et al.Early-stage corrosion behavior of Al-based Gd2O3–W shielding composites in a simulated spent fuel wet storage environment[J].Progress in Nuclear Energy,2021,137:103787.

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    • [6] JUNG Y,LEE Y,KIM J H,et al.Accelerated corrosion tests of Al-B4C neutron absorber used in spent nuclear fuel pool[J].Journal of Nuclear Materials,2021,552:153011.

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    • [8] KAIN V,DE P K,AGARWAL K,et al.Environmental degradation of materials during wet storage of spent nuclear fuels[J].Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance,2000,9:317-323.

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    • [10] SUN Z,YIN S,CHEN Z,et al.Analysis of the application of laser welding technology on maintenance of the underwater components of nuclear power station[J].IOP Conference Series:Materials Science and Engineering,2020,730(1):012008.

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