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作者简介:

张洪伟,男,1978年出生,博士,副教授。主要研究方向为抗疲劳制造及数字化设计。E-mail: zhanghw@bipt.edu.cn

中图分类号:TG146

DOI:10.11933/j.issn.1007-9289.20230914001

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目录contents

    摘要

    喷丸强化残余应力场可以提高钛合金材料的疲劳寿命,但在工作载荷作用下,残余应力场会发生松弛,对于喷丸残余应力对 TC4 钛合金疲劳寿命影响及残余应力本身的松弛行为研究较少。为研究喷丸残余应力对疲劳寿命的影响以及残余应力变化松弛规律,以 TC4 钛合金试件为研究对象建立疲劳寿命仿真模型,分析不同喷丸残余应力场下疲劳寿命的变化规律及其影响,开展疲劳寿命试验,对仿真模型结果进行验证。在此基础上以载荷水平和循环次数为因素,对残余应力松弛的影响规律进行试验研究。结果表明:不同喷丸强度的残余压应力大小对 TC4 钛合金疲劳寿命在一定范围内具有较大影响,残余压应力过小或者过大都会对钛合金疲劳寿命产生负面影响,表面残余压应力为−750 MPa 时疲劳寿命大幅度提升;随着循环次数的增加,残余应力会逐渐发生松弛,尤其是当循环次数达到 104次时,残余应力会明显松弛,应力松弛量平均约为 23.64 %,之后逐渐趋于稳定状态,残余应力也会随着载荷强度的增加逐渐发生松弛,且松弛量不断增大。研究结果可为喷丸残余应力的松弛变化规律研究及工程中提高 TC4 钛合金使用性能、合理高效的预估疲劳寿命提供借鉴参考。

    Abstract

    TC4 titanium alloy is an important material used in the aerospace industry for the development of engine blades, turbine disks, and other aerospace components. However, under actual operating conditions, blades are subjected to high centrifugal, aerodynamic, and other vibratory loads during operation and are highly susceptible to fatigue failure or even fracture. Shot peening (SP) can introduce a residual compressive-stress field on the surface of the workpiece to counteract external loads, thereby significantly improving the fatigue resistance of the component. To date, the effects of SP residual stresses on the fatigue life of TC4 titanium alloys and the relaxation behavior of residual stresses have been sparsely investigated. In this study, the effect of residual stress on the fatigue life of TC4 titanium alloy and the relaxation change in shot-peening residual stress were studied. To study the effect of SP residual stress on fatigue life and the relaxation law of residual stress change, a finite-element model of a TC4 titanium alloy specimen was established using ABAQUS, and a fatigue life simulation was performed. The results of the static analysis were imported into FE-SAFE for fatigue life prediction. The fatigue life change rule and its influence under different shot-peening residual stress fields were studied. Shot-peening experiments were conducted at different shot-peening intensities. The residual stresses of the specimens were determined using an X-ray residual stress diffractometer. In addition, the number of cycles of the fatigue specimens under different surface residual compressive stresses was obtained, and the results of the simulation model were verified. On this basis, the influence law of the residual stress relaxation was experimentally investigated with the load level and number of cycles as factors. The residual stresses of the specimens after cyclic loading with a stress ratio of 0.1 and a frequency of 10 Hz were measured. The changes in the effects of different cycles and load intensities on the relaxation of residual stresses in SP were compared. The results showed that the fatigue life of TC4 specimens with load intensities between 600 and 700 MPa was close to the critical value. The magnitude of the residual compressive stress at different shot-peening intensities had a large influence on the fatigue life of the TC4 titanium alloy within a certain range. Moreover, the fatigue life of the specimen with a surface residual compressive stress of −750 MPa at a load intensity of 600 MPa was substantially better than that of the specimen at other stress levels. Under the experimental conditions used in this study, the amount of residual stress relaxation of SP showed an increasing trend and then gradually stabilized with an increase in the number of cycles. When the number of cycles was increased to 104 , the residual stress relaxation was particularly evident, and the average stress relaxation was approximately 23.64%. In the range of 105 –107 cycles, the residual stress relaxation tended to stabilize, and the average stress relaxation was approximately 19.68%. With an increase in the load intensity, the residual stress relaxation was evident, and with an increase in the cycle time, the effect of the load intensity gradually decreased. However, the surface residual compressive stress remained high. This provides a reference for improving the performance of TC4 titanium alloy in production and predicting the fatigue life in a reasonable and efficient manner.

  • 0 前言

  • TC4 钛合金由于力学性能优良,常应用于制造航空压气机叶片,但在使用过程中,经常会发生疲劳和磨损等破坏。喷丸强化作为一种重要的表面处理手段,可以在钛合金材料表层引入残余压应力场抵消外加应力提高工程材料抗疲劳性能,显著改善工件疲劳强度[1-8]。YAO 等[9]通过研究表面完整性与工件使用寿命之间的关系,发现喷丸强化可以提高 TB6 钛合金疲劳寿命,同时经喷丸强化后的工件裂纹起裂部位深度约为表面以下 150 μm。ZHOU 等[10] 研究了激光冲击和喷丸强化对TC4表面完整性的影响,结果表明复合处理对钛合金显微硬度和残余应力分布的影响优于单一处理。WU 等[11]研究发现喷丸强化并非总是有利于提高疲劳寿命,还受限于喷丸强化后在工件表面引入的残余应力场和表面粗糙度。高玉魁[12]研究了喷丸强化处理 TC18 钛合金后产生的残余应力场对疲劳寿命的影响。田唐永[13]研究发现,湿喷丸工艺下对钛合金疲劳寿命影响比较大的是覆盖率、磨液比和气压。喷丸强化后的残余应力场对材料疲劳寿命有着显著的影响,当材料表面存在残余应力时,材料在受到外界载荷时的应力状态会变得更加复杂。WANG 等[14]根据位错密度演化理论,建立了基于位错机理的本构模型的计算框架,并利用人工神经网络对激光喷丸处理引起的残余应力场和晶粒细化进行了预测,人工神经网络计算效率较高,可以节省大量的数值计算成本。

  • 残余应力在服役过程中会发生松弛现象,相关研究成为该领域国内外的研究重点。研究发现残余应力的松弛与疲劳载荷及循环周次密切相关。 SCHULZE 等[15]在研究残余应力松弛时发现,应力循环和应变循环加载都会引起残余应力松弛。 LEGUINAGOICOA 等[16]发现 TC4 钛合金的残余应力在首个载荷循环周次内松弛显著,松弛的大小和速率在很大程度上取决于施加的载荷。XIE 等[17] 发现 TC4 合金经喷丸处理产生的残余应力与循环周次成对数关系,且在最初的几个循环中,残余应力快速松弛,当施加的拉应力接近屈服强度时,松弛明显且剧烈。MCCLUNG[18]总结了在静态机械载荷和循环载荷下,喷丸强化过程引起的残余应力场的重新分布和松弛,发现静载荷和循环载荷下残余应力的松弛特征较为相似。CHEONG 等[19]发现加工硬化对残余应力的影响,在低周疲劳过程中喷丸处理的 TC4 合金加工硬化程度高时残余应力会发生明显的松弛。GAN 等[20]发现残余压应力场在疲劳裂纹生长过程中发生松弛,残余应力松弛导致残余应力强度因子发生变化影响疲劳裂纹生长率的评估。

  • 目前针对喷丸强化残余应力对TC4钛合金疲劳寿命影响,以及残余应力本身松弛变化行为的相关研究较少,因此须要针对钛合金残余应力稳定性及松弛规律开展深入研究,以为疲劳寿命提高提供技术保障。

  • 本文通过建立 TC4 钛合金疲劳寿命仿真模型模拟,分析不同喷丸残余应力场对钛合金试样疲劳寿命的影响,并开展不同喷丸强度下的疲劳寿命试验,验证数值仿真模型的正确性,还进一步开展不同载荷强度及循环次数对残余应力松弛影响的试验研究。

  • 1 喷丸残余应力对疲劳寿命影响

  • 1.1 基于残余应力的疲劳寿命仿真分析流程

  • 对 TC4 钛合金试件疲劳寿命进行仿真,根据 GB / T3075—2008 设计试件尺寸,将试样左端完全固定,右端施加相应的拉力载荷,如图1 所示。

  • 图1 试件尺寸、加载示意图

  • Fig.1 Specimen dimension and load schematic

  • 使用 ABAQUS 对疲劳试件进行静力学分析,模拟拉伸过程,将 ABAQUS 的应力结果导入FE-SAFE 进行疲劳寿命预测。在疲劳分析时,设置完成载荷谱、疲劳算法、表面粗糙度和残余应力等,再返回到 ABAQUS 查看相应的计算结果,具体流程如图2 所示。

  • 图2 疲劳仿真流程图

  • Fig.2 Fatigue simulation flowchart

  • TC4 钛合金材料的性能参数见表1,本构模型选用 Johnson-Cook 模型,A 为材料屈服应力,B 为材料应变幂指系数,M 为温度敏感性系数,n 为应变硬化指数,C 为应变率敏感系数。计算时设定左端施加固定约束,右端作用恒定载荷,载荷大小为 27 kN。采用六面体结构网格单元类型为 C3D8I 进行网格划分,节点数为 44 121,单元数为 38 000,具体如图3 所示。

  • 表1 TC4 钛合金材料本构模型参数

  • Table1 Parameters of TC4 titanium alloy material models

  • 图3 试件网格划分示意图

  • Fig.3 Schematic of specimen meshing

  • 1.2 模拟结果及分析讨论

  • 图4 为静拉应力作用下试样 Mises 应力云图。可以看出,在试样的中间试验段,应力值达到最大,并向两端逐渐减小,最大应力为 612.7 MPa。

  • 理论名义应力:

  • σ=FS=600MPa

  • 式中,F 为应力大小,S 为试验段面积。

  • 与所施加恒定 27 kN 拉应力计算的理论名义应力相比,其误差为 2.12 %。

  • 图4 试件 Mises 应力分布云图

  • Fig.4 Cloud image of Mises stress distribution of specimen

  • 将 ABAQUS 所得计算结果文件导入 Fe-Safe 软件中,使用软件的 Seeger 算法定义材料属性,输入相应的弹性模量和抗拉强度值(表2),自动生成材料的 S-N 曲线,使用 Miner 线性累计损伤理论和雨流计数法计算疲劳寿命。寿命计算结果如图5 所示,循环周次以对数形式呈现。根据结果显示,试验段即中间部位的疲劳寿命最低[21-22]

  • 表2 TC4 材料基本力学参数

  • Table2 Material parameters of TC4 titanium alloy

  • 不同载荷强度对TC4钛合金疲劳寿命有明显的影响。其中,高载荷强度会显著降低 TC4 钛合金的疲劳寿命,低载荷强度对 TC4 钛合金的疲劳寿命影响较小,但是当载荷强度接近临界值时,疲劳寿命会急剧下降。未进行喷丸强化的疲劳试件的应力分布云图如图5 所示,从图中可以看出,在较小载荷强度下,试件危险区域较小,即寿命较低部分只集中在中间区域,而随着载荷强度增大,危险区域逐渐变大,色带分布逐渐向两端扩展。

  • 图5 未进行喷丸强化疲劳寿命仿真结果云图

  • Fig.5 Cloud image of fatigue life simulation results without shot peening

  • 由图6 可知,随着载荷强度的增大,试件疲劳寿命逐渐下降,即试件模型中的低寿命危险区域愈来愈大,试件的疲劳寿命逐渐变小。但载荷强度在 600~700 MPa 出现疲劳寿命急剧下降的现象,说明在 600~700 MPa 载荷强度接近临界值。

  • 图6 未喷丸试件不同载荷强度下疲劳寿命图

  • Fig.6 Fatigue life of unpeened specimen under different load levels

  • 为了更好地究喷丸残余应力对TC4钛合金疲劳寿命的影响,本文选择 600 MPa 的载荷强度下分析不同初始残余应力对疲劳寿命的影响。

  • 图7 为不同喷丸残余应力下的疲劳寿命图。从图中可以发现,在表面残余压应力为−750 MPa 之前,增大表面残余压应力疲劳寿命逐渐增大,即随着表面残余压应力的不断增加,寿命较低区域逐渐变小,这反映了通过喷丸强化引入的表面残余压应力可以有效地提升疲劳寿命。但当表面残余压应力达到−750 MPa 继续增大后,疲劳寿命反而减小。这说明增大表面残余压应力在一定程度上可以提高疲劳寿命,表面残余压应力并非越大越好。

  • 图7 不同残余应力下的疲劳寿命图

  • Fig.7 Fatigue life plots at different residual stresses

  • 2 喷丸强化试件及疲劳寿命试验

  • 2.1 喷丸强化工艺

  • 试验研究了不同喷丸强度对疲劳寿命的影响,依据 GB / T3075—2008,制备加工了如图8 所示的疲劳试验件,尺寸如图1 所示。

  • 图8 疲劳试样图

  • Fig.8 Fatigue specimeng

  • 试验采用气压式喷丸机和喷丸介质铸钢丸,喷枪直径为 8 mm,喷枪到喷丸区的距离为 120 mm,喷枪安装角度为 30°~45°,喷丸动力源为清洁压缩空气,空气压力为 0.6 MPa±15 %。

  • 为确保喷丸质量,须保持移动速度恒定,喷枪距离及角度不变,丸料供给充足,喷丸机气压稳定。此外,还须对喷丸试验设备的喷丸强度进行标定。喷丸强度是控制喷丸束流引入残余压应力层能力的参数之一。试片的弧高值越高,喷丸束流引入残余应力能力就越强。选用阿尔门试片和弧高测量测试喷丸强度,测量仪型号为 B65 型。喷丸工艺参数如表3 所示。

  • 表3 喷丸强化工艺参数表

  • Table3 Parameters of shot peening process

  • 2.2 疲劳试验

  • 使用 PLG-100 疲劳试验机测试了 TC4 原始试样,以及不同强度下喷丸强化的试样的拉-拉疲劳性能。试验采用应力比为 0.1、正弦波加载、10 Hz 频率和最大载荷幅值为 600 MPa 等条件,以测定不同表面残余压应力下疲劳试验件的疲劳循环次数 Nf

  • PLG-100 型高频疲劳试验机加载为力载荷,试验对象为不同喷丸强度进行喷丸处理后的试件。采用 X 射线残余应力衍射仪对试件进行残余应力测定,不同喷丸强度处理后对应的表面残余压应力不同,以此残余压应力对疲劳寿命影响规律为研究对象,进行疲劳试验,剔除无效数据整理试验结果见表4。

  • 表4 疲劳试验寿命数据表

  • Table4 Parameters of Fatigue test life

  • 将疲劳寿命仿真预测与试验进行对比,由图9 可知,疲劳寿命试验和仿真模拟数据差值最大值为 13 946 次,误差为 17 %左右,由此可以验证仿真模拟的有效性。从图中可以得出,表面残余压应力不是越大越好。实际上,表面残余压应力的大小和疲劳寿命之间存在一定的范围关系。当表面残余压应力过小或者过大都可能对疲劳寿命产生负面影响。表面残余压应力过小可能会被疲劳载荷轻易地破坏或者被其他应力破坏,疲劳寿命下降。

  • 图9 疲劳寿命仿真与试验对比图

  • Fig.9 Comparison of fatigue life simulation with test

  • 3 喷丸残余应力松弛试验

  • 喷丸强化后残余应力在受到外界载荷作用下,由于温度和应力等因素的影响,发生松弛现象。应力松弛不仅对工件疲劳性能预测与判断产生干扰,而且会削弱喷丸强化效果,使工件在较早阶段发生疲劳失效。因此研究喷丸强化后应力松弛的现象,对于提高材料的使用寿命和性能具有重要意义。

  • 3.1 喷丸试验样件

  • 依据 GB / T3075—2008 制备如图10 所示的试件。对试件样品进行喷丸强化处理,测量试件中的残余应力,研究不同循环次数与不同载荷强度对喷丸处理后试件残余应力的影响。喷丸工艺参数见表5。

  • 图10 试棒尺寸图

  • Fig.10 Test rod dimensions

  • 表5 喷丸工艺参数

  • Table5 Parameters of shot peening process

  • 该试验在应力比 0.1、频率 10 Hz 的循环载荷作用下,分别对比不同循环次数和不同载荷强度两种变化的影响。在不同循环次数疲劳试验中,试件在一种载荷下循环不同次数,进行残余应力的检测。而在不同载荷强度疲劳试验中,试件则在相同循环次数的基础上,进行不同载荷强度的疲劳加载,达到设定的次数后停止试验,进行表面残余应力的测量。

  • 3.2 残余应力松弛试验结果分析

  • 图11 为 TC4 钛合金在不同循环次数下材料表面残余应力分布图。从试验结果可以看出:循环次数对残余应力松弛有较大的影响,松弛主要发生在循环前期(104 次),且循环载荷为 300 MPa 时的应力松弛规律与 700 MPa 时相同,但在 700 MPa 时的残余应力松弛更大,约为 188 MPa。初始状态下表面残余压应力为−684.5 MPa,随着循环次数的增加,表面残余应力幅值均呈递减趋势,表面残余应力逐渐松弛,特别是在达到 104 次循环后,残余应力的松弛效应变得尤为明显,并随后趋于稳定[23]。当循环 104 次时,表面残余压应力幅值在对应的不同应力水平下分别为 554、 536、 519.5、 507.5 和 496.5 MPa,与初始状态相比降低了 130.5、148.5、 165、177 和 188 MPa,应力松弛量平均约为 23.64%; 当循环 105 次时,对应的表面残余压应力幅值继续减小分别降低了 110、128、142、154.5 和 158.5 MPa,应力松弛量平均约为 20.25%;而当循环进行了 106 次时,表面残余应力值基本没有变化,保持稳定,稳定在−550 MPa 左右,表面残余压应力幅值在不同应力水平下分别为 569、556.5、544、540.5 和 539 MPa,幅值对比降低较为稳定,应力松弛量平均约为 19.68%。由以上结果分析可知,残余应力的松弛主要发生在 104 次循环时。喷丸处理后 TC4 合金表面变得粗糙,并在材料表面引入加工硬化,出现应力集中现象,在疲劳过程中又发生循环软化,导致表层材料可以承受更大的载荷。材料表面的表面应变大、约束少、畸变储能高[24],经过喷丸之后发生加工硬化现象,其微观表现为大量的位错塞积群,疲劳循环过程中容易发生动态回复,合金位错密度降低,发生动态回复效应,在宏观上表现为循环软化的现象,导致残余应力松弛降低无明显松弛。

  • 图11 循环次数与表面残余应力关系曲线图

  • Fig.11 Relationship between the number of cycles and the surface residual stress curve

  • 图12 为不同载荷强度下表面残余应力分布图。由图可知,在 300~700 MPa 条件下,随着载荷强度的增加,残余应力松弛量逐渐变大,载荷值越大残余应力松弛越严重。循环次数的增加使得喷丸残余应力松弛趋势呈现为先大幅度松弛,到达最高值随后逐渐稳定的趋势。相比于载荷强度 300 MPa 时的表面残余应力,当循环次数为 104 时,不同载荷作用下,残余应力松弛量分别为 18、34.5、46.5 和 57.5 MPa,分别约占表面残余应力的 3.25%、6.23%、 8.39%和 10.8%。相较于循环次数为 105 时,不同载荷作用下,残余应力松弛量分别为 18、32、44.5 和 48.5 MPa,分别约占表面残余应力的 3.14%、5.57%、 7.75%和 8.45%。而当不同载荷作用下循环次数为 106 和 107 时,残余应力松弛趋势大致相同并趋于稳定。这是因为随着载荷的增加,最大载荷应力与残余压应力叠加超过材料的屈服极限,引起残余应力松弛和重新分布[25]。对材料施加循环疲劳载荷,材料中微观表现为晶粒多次往复运动、增殖和堆积,相邻晶粒发生位错导致出现屈服现象。当疲劳载荷水平的增加,材料出现屈服现象所需的循环周次就变少。此时若施加强度更高的载荷会更容易触发位错运动,残余应力松弛就会更加明显。屈服现象严重影响着残余应力的松弛变化,而屈服现象取决于残余压应力与残余拉应力的差值大小。载荷强度较大,两者的差值就较大,此时材料更容易发生塑性形变。这是因为达到了材料的局部塑性流动应力,使得加载初期松弛行为更加明显。由于本试验采用的最大载荷强度为 700 MPa,非常接近材料的屈服强度,这就说明较高的循环载荷强度更容易使残余应力松弛变化。

  • 图12 不同载荷强度与表面残余应力关系曲线图

  • Fig.12 Relationship between different stress levels and surface residual stress curves

  • 4 结论

  • (1)制备 TC4 钛合金标准疲劳试件,开展不同喷丸强度下的疲劳试验,并进行疲劳寿命仿真模拟。对不同表面残余应力的仿真结果与喷丸强化试件疲劳寿命试验结果进行对比分析,仿真结果最大误差在 17 %左右,仿真模拟具有良好的有效性。

  • (2)本文研究条件下,载荷强度在 600~700 MPa 时,TC4 试件疲劳寿命接近临界值。不同喷丸强度的残余压应力大小对TC4钛合金疲劳寿命在一定范围内具有较大影响,在载荷强度 600 MPa 时,表面残余压应力为−750 MPa 的试件疲劳寿命大幅优于其他应力水平下的试件疲劳寿命。

  • (3)钛合金喷丸残余应力松弛受载荷循环次数及其强度影响明显。本文实验条件下,喷丸残余应力松弛量随循环次数增加呈现先增大再逐渐稳定的趋势。循环次数增加至 104 时,残余应力松弛尤为明显,应力松弛量平均约为 23.64 %。在 105~107 循环次数范围内,残余应力松弛趋于稳定,应力松弛量平均约为 19.68 %。随载荷强度提高,残余应力松弛明显,随着循环次数的增加,载荷强度的影响逐渐减小,表面残余压应力仍处于较高水平。今后应进一步关注体内残余应力的松弛规律。

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