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作者简介:

杨晔,男,1977年出生,博士,研究员,博士研究生导师。主要研究方向为光电薄膜材料与器件。E-mail: yangye@nimte.ac.cn

中图分类号:TU524;TE08;O439

DOI:10.11933/j.issn.1007-9289.20231228005

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目录contents

    摘要

    基于 WO3-NiO 体系的电致变色(EC)玻璃具有优异的可见与红外的主动调控特性和节能效果,在建筑、新能源汽车等产业的应用得到越来越多的关注。生产效率与制造成本等因素的限制,使得大面积 WO3-NiO 电致变色玻璃未规模化地投入市场。相比于在单一玻璃表面采用膜层堆栈方式制备多层膜结构的电致变色器件,以高性能锂离子胶膜为中间层,将磁控溅射沉积的 Glass / TCO / WO3以及 Glass / TCO / NiO 通过层压的方式组装成夹层式器件是一种可行地实现电致变色玻璃大面积、低成本规模化生产的技术手段,正逐渐成为器件制备技术的主流。然而,面向于大面积夹层式 WO3-NiO 电致变色玻璃的低成本制造和新的应用需求,仍有必要开展从材料到器件的体系化研究。在材料端,开发兼容现有镀膜产线的高质量 EC 氧化物陶瓷靶材制备技术,高性能 WO、NiO 薄膜成分、结构、性能与色彩的调控技术,具备高离子电导率、高粘结强度、高热稳定、高透明且易于实现大面积规模化生产的锂离子胶膜材料及其制备技术等。在器件端,开发与现有玻璃产业兼容的大尺寸器件的层压工艺,弧型器件的制备技术,具备更高效节能且能呈现中性着褪色的器件技术等。针对上述挑战,综述了国内外相关研究团队在上述领域的研究进展,结果表明,可以制备出满足高性能电致变色薄膜沉积的 EC 氧化物陶瓷靶材,通过调节磁控溅射工艺参数可以有效实现对薄膜成份、结构以及性能调控,开发出满足层压工艺的、具有高离子电导率 (1.51×10-4 S·cm-1 )的固态聚合物电解质,最终利用商用高压釜实现 30 cm×30 cm WO3-NiO 电致变色器件高质量制备。

    Abstract

    WO3-NiO-based electrochromic devices (ECDs), which can actively regulate visible and infrared (IR) light and offer outstanding energy-efficient performance, have been extensively investigated owing to their potential application in smart windows for energy-efficient buildings and light-modulated skylight glass for electric vehicles. However, the high cost and low production efficiency of ECDs severely restrict their large-scale application. Compared with the conventional ECD fabrication process, which involves stacking multiple films on a single glass substrate, the lamination process for assembling a WO3–NiO ECD by laminating the individual components of glass / TCO / WO3 and glass / TCO / NiO with a transparent adhesive electrolyte interlayer is gradually becoming mainstream for realizing low-cost, commercially viable, large-area ECDs. However, for the practical production and new application of large-area laminated devices, one must perform a systematic survey from the starting material to device assembly, including high-quality EC oxide targets for large-area sputtering deposition; sputtered EC films with a regulated composition, microstructure, high performance, and color; achieve large transparent adhesive electrolyte foils with high room-temperature ionic conductivity, temperature stability, and high adhesive strength; perform a large-area ECD lamination process in the existing commercialized facilities; realize curved-device fabrication; and achieve an energy-efficient device with neutral color in both tinted and bleached states. Hence, researchers have conducted a series of studies, and the progress is presented in this review. First, the requirements and preparation methods of WO3 and NiO ceramic targets for large-scale production are presented. An appropriate level of electrical conductivity is required to satisfy middle-frequency sputtering, which is the most commonly used sputtering mode in commercialized films. The EC performance and W / O stoichiometric ratio of a WO3 film sputtered using a ceramic target can be effectively adjusted by changing the sputtering power and gas pressure under pure Ar atmosphere. In this study, the deposition rate increases from 6.9 to 20.8 nm as the sputtering power increases from 100 to 250 W. Additionally, an 18-nm-thick amorphous tin-zinc-oxide film is used to shield the sputtered WO3 film so that a room-temperature-deposited film with excellent cyclic stability can be achieved. A high content of niobium (Nb / (Nb+W) = 54.1 at.%) is introduced into the WO3 matrix to realize a neutral-tinted color and a relatively lower IR absorption in the tinted state. In the NiO film, Li / Si co-doping followed by rapid thermal annealing can enhance the transmittance near the short-wavelength zone in the bleached state, the charge capacity, and the cyclic stability. Additionally, W / Zn co-doping enables a NiO EC film with superior performance to be achieved after tempering at 640 ℃. For the transparent adhesive electrolyte interlayer, a new strategy for significantly improving the ionic conductivity of polyvinyl-butyral (PVB) via a cross-linking reaction with 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (KH560) is established. The cross-linked PVB solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) with 10 wt.% KH560 exhibits a high room-temperature ionic conductivity (1.51 × 10−4 S·cm1 ). Additionally, the prepared PVB-SPE exhibits comprehensive optical, mechanical, and thermal performances, including high visible transmittance (> 91%), relatively high adhesive strength (2.13 MPa), and superior thermal stability (up to 150 ℃). The WO3-NiO ECDs with sizes of 5 cm × 5 cm to 30 cm × 30 cm can be assembled in a commercialized autoclave to realize perfect lamination using the PVB-SPE foil. The device can be operated stably at temperatures ranging from -20 ℃ to 80 ℃, thus underscoring the potential of the PVB-SPE for realizing commercially viable large-area ECDs. Additionally, an ECD is assembled using the WO3 system with a high Nb doping content. The ECD has a neutral color (a* = 0.6; b* =-2.7) and presents a high energy efficiency in reducing the interior-space air temperature by approximately 4.3 ℃ in its fully tinted state.

    关键词

    电致变色器件玻璃靶材磁控溅射薄膜

  • 0 前言

  • 为了应对气候和环境危机,我国政府就碳排放向国际社会作出郑重承诺,即在 2030 年前达到“碳达峰”,到 2060 年前实现“碳中和”。在能源消耗型行业中,来自建筑业以及交通运输业的能源消耗占有重要的组成部分。《中国建筑能耗研究报告 2020》指出,2018 年建筑运行阶段能耗的占建筑全寿命周期能耗的 46.6%,占全国能源消费总量的比重为 21.7%[1]。相关研究指出,建筑运行能耗中约有 40%是通过透明的窗户所流失的[2-3]。最近,新能源汽车产业快速发展,研究显示,车舱内 2 / 3 的热获得主要来自于太阳辐射,大部分通过占有汽车总围护面积 1 / 4 的车窗玻璃(前后挡、侧挡以及天窗 / 天幕)进入,导致空调系统所消耗的电能最大可达电池容量的 50%[4]。因此,有效控制通过车窗玻璃的车舱内外的热量交换,对于实现更加节能、行驶里程更长的新能源汽车显得尤为重要。

  • 基于超薄银以及透明导电氧化物薄膜的 Low-E 玻璃具有高可见光透过、红外光反射的优点,已经在上述领域,特别是建筑领域,得到规模化应用[5-6]。但是,由于这类薄膜无法实现在可见和红外光学波段的主动调控,很难获得更加高效的节能效果[2-37]。在众多待选的可进行光学调控的器件中,相比于聚合物分散液晶器件(Polymer dispersed liquid Crystal,PDLC)以及悬浮颗粒器件(Suspended particle device,SPD),基于金属氧化物体系的电致变色器件 (Electrochromic device,ECD)不但具有较宽的光学调制幅度、较低的操作电压(1~3 V)、良好的断路状态记忆功能以及优良的环境稳定性,还具备优异的可见与红外的调控特性,因而得到更多的关注[38-10]。通常可实现电致变色的氧化物材料包括 WO3 [11]、 MoO3 [12]、TiO2 [13]、IrO2 [14]、V2O5 [15]、NiO[16]等,其中阴极变色的WO3与阳极变色的NiO配对形成电致变色器件成为研究与应用的主流。磁控溅射技术是大面积薄膜制备的主要技术手段[17-21]。美国 View、 SAGE Electrochromics、Halio、瑞典的 Chromogenics 以及中国合肥威迪变色玻璃有限公司等公司实现了 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件的小批量生产与产品供应。

  • 一个典型的 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件,通常由底部透明导电层、电致变色层、离子传导层、离子存储层和顶部透明导电层五部分组成。其中,透明导电层为离线磁控溅射沉积的 Sn 掺杂的 In2O3(ITO)、 Al掺杂的ZnO(AZO)或在线制备的F掺杂SnO2(FTO)薄膜;电致变色层为 WO3 [38-11],该材料在电场的作用下发生电子与 Li 离子共注入的电化学着色反应 (WOx(无色 W6+)+ yLi+ + ye ↔ LiyWOx(蓝色 W5+);离子传导层通常为无机或者有机体系的透明电解质材料,该材料不但能传输 Li 离子,还需具备电子绝缘的功能,防止上下透明导电层间的短路[1022];离子储存层通常为 NiO,该材料不但具有较高的 Li 离子储存容量,还具有较好的阳极着色性能,在电场的作用下发生电子与 Li 离子共脱嵌的电化学着色反应(LiyNiOx(无色 Ni2+)↔ NiOx(棕黄色 Ni3+)+ yLi+ + ye),与 WO3 部分相互配合与补偿,进一步扩大 ECD 的光学调制幅度[322-25]

  • 按照 WO3-NiO 基 ECD 组装方式的不同可分为单衬底式和夹层式两种构型[822]。单衬底式 ECD 通常是采用磁控溅射法在同一片基材(刚性的玻璃或柔性的 PET 等)上顺序沉积一系列不同成分的功能性薄膜[8],其中离子传导层通常为厚度小于 100 nm 的无机固态电解质材料[22]。单衬底式 ECD 的制备过程对磁控溅射镀膜设备的要求较高,在溅射过程中腔体内部不可避免出现的粒径在微米量级的污染颗粒物会穿透电解质层导致 ECD 上下电极的导通,电流在此处短路[22],大部分电流无法有效参与器件活性层的变色反应,进而引起不均匀变色或者不变色,不但无法满足器件运行双稳态的功能需求,而且还降低高质量 ECD 批量化的生产效率。因此,复杂的磁控溅射设备要求(高洁净度保持、多腔体) 以及低的生产效率最终导致 ECD 器件的价格居高不下(大于 700 USD / m2[26],很难满足低成本、规模化的应用需求。夹层式 ECD 是先在两片基材 (刚性的玻璃或柔性的 PET 等)上分别采用磁控溅射或者湿化学涂布的方式制备 WO3 和 NiO 薄膜,以液体或者固体的电解质作为中间层,然后通过层压、胶合等方式组装成器件(图1)。这是一种简便、低成本、可实现大面积高质量器件组装的路径,其优势在于:① 电解质层的厚度通常在 50~200 μm,远远大于污染颗粒物的典型尺寸,可以有效避免 ECD 上下电极短路,确保变色的均匀性和开路稳定性,进而有可能降低对镀膜设备的要求;② WO3与 NiO 薄膜可独立沉积制备,避免了单片式堆栈膜层结构中薄膜因沉积环境不同而对前后膜层产生的负面影响,使利用常规磁控溅射镀膜设备成为可能。此外,这两种薄膜可以采用不同的沉积手段独立制备,而制备条件的多样化将有助于进一步降低镀膜方面的成本;③ Li 离子直接通过在电解质中添加 Li 盐引入,避免了单片式结构通常采用的 Li 金属靶材的磁控溅射沉积工艺,众所周知,Li 金属是一种活泼的金属,该材料的制造、存储和使用都需要苛刻的工艺与条件;④ 更加容易实现具有弧形结构器件的制备,可以满足新能源汽车行业弧面形状的天幕以及侧窗的应用需求。

  • 图1 夹层式 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件构型

  • Fig.1 Laminated WO3-NiO electrochromic device configuration

  • 基于上述优点,国内外的一些科研机构和公司开展了夹层式 WO3-NiO 器件的研究与商业化。例如:北京航空航天大学 ZHANG 等[9]用磁控溅射在 glass / ITO 衬底上分别沉积 WO3 以及 Ni1-xO 薄膜,然后将含有 30%的 1M LiClO4 / 碳酸丙烯酯溶液的聚乙烯醇缩丁醛(PVB)凝胶电解质作为中间层,采用层压、胶合的方式制备出尺寸为 5 cm×5 cm、调制幅度为 65.8%的 WO3-NiO 器件;瑞典乌普萨拉大学 GRANQVIST 等 [3] 与 Chromogenics 公司 GEOREN 等[27]合作,采用卷对卷(Roll to roll,R2R) 磁控溅射沉积的方式在大宽幅 PET / ITO 衬底上分别沉积 WO3以及 NiO 薄膜,利用 PMMA-Li 盐-PC 的凝胶体系作为电解质,通过层压、胶合的方式制备出具有柔性的 WO3-NiO 器件;美国 Halio 公司利用湿化学方法在玻璃表面分别沉积沉积纳米结构的 WO3与NiO薄膜,利用交联聚合物体系作为电解质,实现了大尺寸 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件的制备[28-29]。韩国高丽大学 LEE 等 [30] 采用 UV 光固化的 PMMA / LiClO4 / PC 体系作为电解质层,实现了夹层式 WO3 基电致变色器件的制备,该器件拥有良好的循环稳定性和宽的应用温区。

  • 面向于大面积高质量 ECD 的低成本制备和新的应用需求,夹层式 WO3-NiO 器件依然有如下若干关键的科学与技术问题亟待解决:

  • (1)能够采用高质量的 WO3 以及 NiO 陶瓷靶材取代金属靶材的反应溅射,在提升镀膜速率的同时实现对薄膜结构与性能的调控;实现大尺寸、高质量陶瓷靶材的制备。

  • (2)WO3 与 NiO 的镀膜能够兼容现有的 Low-E 磁控溅射镀膜线,进一步降低制造成本。这是由于经过近 30 年的发展,Low-E 镀膜技术得到迅猛发展,已经实现了大面积、低成本、高质量的镀膜,积累了成熟的工艺、材料和批量的装备。

  • (3)电致变色(Electrochromic,EC)膜层能够承受玻璃的高温钢化工艺,在确保基片玻璃高强的同时,进一步提升EC 薄膜的性能。

  • (4)能够开发出可大面积制备的具有高室温离子电导率、高粘结强度、高光学透明度、高热稳定性以及固态聚合物电解质胶膜材料以及相应的制备工艺和器件组装工艺。

  • (5)能够实现弧形结构器件的制备,进一步满足新能源汽车行业的应用需求。

  • (6)能够实现在着、褪色条件下均具有高度中性色器件的制备。

  • 为此,本文将从 WO3 与 NiO 磁控溅射靶材、 WO3 薄膜、NiO 薄膜、固态聚合物电解质胶膜以及 WO3-NiO 器件五个方面综述最近的研究进展。

  • 1 WO3与 NiO 磁控溅射靶材

  • WO3 和 NiO 电致变色薄膜大都是通过利用金属靶材在 Ar+O2 气氛下采用反应溅射的方式制备[31-32]。以 WO3 薄膜的反应溅射为例,高质量 WO3 薄膜的结构与电致变色性能依赖溅射气体中 O2 的含量[32]。然而,较高的 O2浓度会导致反应溅射过程不稳定、靶材表面“中毒”等现象的出现[33]。更重要的是,对 ECD 制造成本起到重要影响的薄膜沉积速率也严重依赖于溅射气氛中 O2 的比例:ATAK 等[32]研究表明,随着 O2 含量的增加,反应溅射 WO3 薄膜的沉积速率从 41 nm / min 急剧下降至 7 nm / min。此外,GARG 等[34]探讨了 WO3 薄膜沉积速率与每平方米总成本之间的关系,发现随着沉积速率从 18 nm / min 略微增加到 24 nm / min,总成本可降低近 30%。因此,采用陶瓷靶材取代相应的金属靶材在纯 Ar 体系下的溅射将有助于打破高浓度 O2 溅射气氛下薄膜优异的 EC 性能与较低溅射速率之间的强耦合关系。从靶材制造角度看,相对于金属靶材,氧化物陶瓷靶材还具有制造工艺简单、易于实现多元掺杂等优点:例如 W 是一种典型的难熔金属,其熔点为 3 390℃,因此,W 靶材的制备需要用到大于 2 000℃的真空烧结工艺[35-36];而 WO3的熔点只有 1 473℃,在 1 000℃ 左右常压条件下就可以实现原料粉体的高质量烧结[37]。纯 Ni 材料含有磁性,不利于磁控溅射镀膜,而其氧化物体系则完全没有磁性。考虑到主流的大面积商业化镀膜通常采用直流(DC)溅射或者孪生靶的中频(MF)磁控溅射,这就要求陶瓷靶材还必须具有一定的导电性(阻值通常小于 2 kΩ)。除此之外,陶瓷靶材还需满足一系列溅射靶材常规的共性要求,包括高纯度、高致密度、掺杂与成分的高度均匀性等[38]

  • 在磁控溅射靶材制备技术方面,这两种材料在高温烧结环境下容易失氧,导致致密度不高,进而影响溅射过程的稳定性,为此,韩海涛[39]采用机械球磨法制备的纳米级 WO3 细粉在常压氧气下 1 200℃烧结制备出密度为 6.82 g / cm3 的 WO3 靶材;尚福亮等[40]采用常压固相烧结工艺在通氧条件下制备出高纯度、密度为 6.84 g / cm3 的 WO3靶材; 赵文凯[37]和 ZHANG 等[41]以前期积累的高质量 AZO 靶材的技术为基础,通过粉体原料的筛选、成型方式的选择、烧结工艺与气氛的优化,制备出直径为 76.2 mm(3 英寸),致密度大于 90%、电阻值在 2~2 000 Ω、可多元掺杂的 WO3 靶材(图2a) 和 NiO 靶材(图2b)。

  • 图2 WO3 与 NiO 磁控溅射靶材

  • Fig.2 Sintered WO3 and NiO sputtering target

  • 2 WO3薄膜

  • WO3 作为阴极电致变色材料已经得到广泛的研究和应用,大部分 WO3薄膜的制备是基于金属靶材的反应溅射,而利用 WO3 陶瓷靶材在纯氩或微氧气氛下溅射的工艺研究相对较少,有必要进一步认识磁控溅射关键参数,特别是溅射功率、溅射气压等对 WO3 薄膜沉积速率、结构以及电致变色性能的影响规律,为 WO3 陶瓷靶材在产业界大面积镀膜方面的应用奠定基础;考虑到现有磁控镀膜线均无原位加热功能,缺乏依靠衬底高温(~350℃)实现 WO3 薄膜 EC 稳定性提升的可能性,为此,在 WO3 表面沉积超薄(~18 nm)非晶氧化锌锡(Zinc Tin Oxide,ZTO)的缓冲层技术,进一步改善室温沉积 WO3 薄膜的循环稳定性[21];另一方面,传统 WO3 在着色态呈现典型的深蓝色,而蓝光环境会导致居住者极端的不舒适[22],追寻中性着色的 ECD 是产业界高度关注的一个课题,研究表明,采用高浓度的 Nb 掺杂有望解决这一问题[42]。本部分重点介绍这三个方面的研究进展。

  • 2.1 溅射功率与溅射气压对 WO3薄膜的影响

  • 首先探讨溅射功率对利用陶瓷靶材沉积 WO3 薄膜的影响[2037]。随着溅射功率从 100 W 增加到 250 W,WO3薄膜的沉积速率从 6.9 nm / min 增加到 20.8 nm / min (图3a),同时薄膜的堆积密度从0.816 增加到 0.848 (图3b),薄膜的柱状结构被保持并更加紧实致密(图3c),这有助于阻止 Li 离子在不断嵌入和脱出过程中薄膜结构的崩塌和瓦解,从而确保较高的循环稳定性[37]。研究还显示溅射功率对薄膜的 O / W 比几乎没有影响[2037]。相比之下,溅射气压对 WO3 薄膜的影响比较明显,特别是薄膜的 O / W 比。随着溅射气压的增加,薄膜依然是非晶结构(图3d),但是薄膜外观有明显的差别(图3e),在 0.4 Pa,薄膜呈现蓝色,这与薄膜内部存在较多 W4+有关,当气压继续增加,薄膜变成无色透明,这与 O / W 比增加相一致(图3f)。其原因在于 W 的相对原子质量(183)是 O(16)的 10 余倍,因此在较低的溅射气压,O 相对于 W 更容易受到散射的影响,即 W 更容易沉积到衬底上,因此所沉积的薄膜氧含量不足,薄膜宏观表现为蓝色。而在较高的气压下,溅射的物质被热化,两种溅射物质的迁移都以扩散为主,W 原子和 O 原子受到散射的影响几乎相等,因此所沉积薄膜的 O / W 比进一步增加。然而,更高的气压(如 1.6 Pa 和 2.0 Pa)会导致薄膜结构疏松,循环过程中薄膜结构容易崩塌和瓦解,进而降低循环稳定性(图2g)[20]。由上述研究可知采用 WO3 陶瓷靶材磁控溅射过程中依靠沉积功率与工作气压的调控实现对所沉积薄膜的结构以及性能进行调节是可行的。另外,WO3 薄膜的厚度随着溅射速率的延长而增加,而薄膜的着色深度依赖薄膜的厚度,大部分研究工作发现 300 nm 的厚度是合适的[21],其着色态透过率最低可以小于 5%,可以满足器件的应用需求。较厚的膜层虽然可以实现更低的着色态透过率,但是溅射时间延长,会增加镀膜的成本。

  • 图3 不同溅射功率对 WO3薄膜的影响[112037](a)沉积速率[37](b)堆积密度[37](c)截面 SEM 照片[37](d)XRD 图谱[11](e)外观照片[20](f)O / W 比[20](g)循环伏安曲线[20]

  • Fig.3 Influence of sputtering power on WO3 film[11, 20, 37]: (a) Depostion rate[37]; (b) Stacking density[37]; (c) Sectional SEM pictures[37]; (d) Sample apparent photographs[20]; (e) O / W ratio[20]; and (f) Cyclic voltammetry curves[20].

  • 2.2 WO3薄膜表面的 ZTO 缓冲层

  • WO3 薄膜在着色态和澄清态之间频繁的切换过程中,Li 离子在 WO3 薄膜中不断的嵌入和脱出会不可逆地削弱其长期循环稳定性,可能的衰退机理包括离子捕获[43],结构崩溃或降解[44]以及由离子球研磨引起的表面层致密化[8]。近年来,研究者在氧化钨薄膜表面沉积 7 nm SiO2 [45]、80 nm Si3N4 [46]和 97 nm Ta2O5 [47]无机缓冲层分别赋予 WO3 薄膜快速响应、酸性环境稳定以及漏电流阻隔的性能。最近,基于锌锡氧(ZTO)的三元氧化物正受到越来越多的关注,典型的 ZTO 薄膜在沉积态以及退火处理后,都呈现致密非晶结构、高可见透过率(大于 83%) 和较低表面粗糙度(1~2 nm)[48],已经在薄膜太阳能电池、阻隔薄膜等领域得到应用,然而很少有其在电致变色薄膜领域应用的报道。最近,FENG 等[21]通过在室温沉积的 WO3 薄膜表面继续沉积一层厚度为 18 nm 的 ZTO 层(图4a,样品命名为 WO / ZTO)可以确保 2 000 圈电化学循环后柱状结构保持不变(图4b),极大延缓着色态透过率的上升(图4c)。相对应,对于没有 ZTO 覆盖层的样品 (WO),经过电化学循环后柱状结构粗化(图4b),导致离子通道数量减少,电致变色性能衰减,特别是着色态的透过率明显升高(图4c、4d)[21]。研究还显示,这种 ZTO 覆盖层还有助于提升室温沉积 NiO 薄膜的循环稳定性[24]

  • 2.3 具有中性着色的 WO3体系

  • 研究表明,着色态 WO3在中心波长 850 nm 处存在一个宽的吸收峰,该峰的峰肩延伸至 500~700 nm,导致在 300~500 nm 处(中心峰位~400 nm)蓝光吸收较低、透过较强[49],表现为 WO3 在着色态呈现典型的深蓝色。蓝色态 ECD 的显色指数(CRI)通常较低(小于 30),会造成处于蓝光环境的居住者的极端不舒适[2150]。因此从 ECD 实际应用的角度,急需开发具有着色态中性色(CRI> 90)的 WO3新体系。ARVIZU 等[51]发现 300 nm 厚的 Mo 与 Ti 共掺杂的 W0.70Ti0.10Mo0.20O3薄膜具有良好的色中性,但是电化学稳定性不高;ROUGIER 等[52-53]也发现V与Nb的掺杂可实现一定的色中性,但是电化学性能不好,如着色对比度(Tb / Tt)只有 1.7,循环稳定性不到 80 次。最近,HU 等[42]开发了高浓度 Nb 掺杂(Nb /(Nb+W)=54.1%)的 WO3 体系,利用陶瓷靶材在 ITO 衬底上实现了磁控溅射镀膜(所镀样品简称 WNO),进一步通过 350℃快速退火处理(Rapid Thermal Annealing,RTA)有效提升薄膜的 EC 性能(简称 WNO-350)。相比于纯 WO3 体系(简称 WO),完全着色态的 WNO 体系在可见光区域具有相对平坦的光学透过率曲线(图5a)[42]; 从外观颜色上看,着色态 WO 呈现蓝色(b*=−25.7),而 Nb 掺杂体系,特别是 WNO-350 呈现明显的中性黑(b*=1.0,图5d),经过计算,着色态 Nb 掺杂 WO3 体系的 CRI 值均高于 90(图5e)[42];WNO-350 样品在整个着色过程中均保持较为平坦的可见光光谱曲线(图5f)[42]。中性色产生的原因主要在于着色态体系中除了存在 W5+(图5g)外,还存在部分还原的 Nb4+(图5h),而这种部分还原的铌氧化物恰好在 400 nm 处存在最大的吸收[54],有助于削减氧化钨在此处的高透过,进而实现较为平坦的可见光透过光谱;此外,从薄膜样品的反射率(图5b) 和吸收率(图5c)图谱可以看出,相比于 WO 体系,在红外波段区域,WNO 体系具有较高的反射率和较低吸收率,这将有助于减少薄膜在着色态下对红外波段热量的吸收,减缓器件表面温度的上升以及向室内空间的热辐射[42]

  • 图4 ZTO 缓冲层对 WO3薄膜的影响[21](a)结构示意图(b)SEM 照片(c)不同循环条件下的透过率变化图(d)外观照片

  • Fig.4 Influence of ZTO buffer layer on WO3 film[21]: (a) schematic diagram; (b) SEM morphologies; (c) dynamic changes of the transmittance varied with different cycle number; (d) sample apparent pictures.

  • 图5 WO,WNO 与 WNO-350 的基础物性[42](a)透过率图谱(b)反射率图谱(c)吸收率图谱(d)外观照片与色度值(e)CRI 值(f)WNO-350 在不同着色态下的透过率曲线(g)W 4f XPS 谱图(h)Nb3d XPS 谱图

  • Fig.5 Basic properties of WO; WNO; and WNO-350[42]: (a) Transmittance spectra; (b) Reflectance spectra; (c) Absorptance spectra; (d) Appearance pictures as well as chromaticity values of a* and b*; (e) CRI value; (f) Transmittance spectra of WNO-350 at different degree of coloration by regulating the tinting time; (g) W 4f XPS spectrum; (h) Nb3d XPS spectrum.

  • 3 NiO 薄膜

  • 离子存储层 NiO 是 ECD 的一个重要组成部分,对器件的性能、外观颜色等起到重要的作用。DONG 等[55]发现 NiO 层致密化以及不可逆的 Li 捕获是全固态 WO3-NiO 器件在运行过程中性能衰退的主要原因。因此,通过改善 NiO 层的结构稳定性来提升循环稳定性显得尤为重要。在褪色态下,WO3-NiO 器件的外观颜色高度依赖 NiO 部分的颜色[3],这是由于 NiO 薄膜在可见光的短波区域拥有较高吸收,最终使薄膜呈现亮黄色或者棕黄色。降低 NiO 在短波区域的吸收,提升该波段的光学透过来实现褪色态器件的中性色对产业界有着重要的意义;另外,面向于实际应用的环境,器件所附着的玻璃衬底通常需要进行钢化处理来赋予其具有抵抗机械冲击或者热冲击的力学性能,如能借鉴 Low-E 行业的先镀膜后钢化的工艺,将有助于进一步降低 WO3-NiO 器件的制造成本[56]。然而,如何避免 NiO 等电致变色薄膜材料在经历短时大于 600℃高温钢化处理后性能的衰退也是一个值得探讨的课题。

  • 3.1 Si-Li 共掺杂与后续 RTA 对 NiO 性能的影响

  • WU等[23]采用Si-Li共掺杂(SLNO)以及400℃ RTA 来提升 NiO 薄膜结构与性能,结果表明:相对于纯 NiO 薄膜(NO),经历 Si-Li 共掺杂与 RTA 后处理的 NiO 薄膜(SLNO-400)呈现较为明显的(111) 择优取向生长(图6a),更多(111)晶面的暴露能够储存更多的锂离子,有助于提升薄膜的锂离子存储容量(图6b);Si 的掺杂提升了薄膜的光学带隙 (从 3.63 eV 提升至 3.72 eV),进一步增加短波(小于 500 nm)区域的光学透过率(图6c),薄膜褪色态呈现的良好的色中性(图6d)[23];RTA 退火不但能提升薄膜的调制幅度(在 550 nm 处可达 37%),还能确保 Si-Li 共掺杂 NiO 薄膜拥有较好的循环稳定性(图6b),这可能归因于 RTA 处理促进共掺 NiO 体系内部形成坚韧的 Si-O-Si 骨架(图6e)[23]

  • 图6 RTA 处理对 NO 以及 SLNO 样品的影响[23](a)XRD 图谱(b)CV 曲线(c)透过率曲线(d)外观照片(e)Si 2p XPS 图谱

  • Fig.6 Influence of RTA on NO and SLNO films[23]: (a) XRD patterns; (b) CV curves; (c) Transmittance curves; (d) Appearance pictures; (e) Si 2p XPS spectra.

  • 3.2 可钢化 NiO 体系

  • 现有 NiO 薄膜体系在热处理温度超过 200℃后就存在显著的性能衰退[57],很难满足 600℃以上的钢化热冲击。针对这一难题,在经过大量掺杂成分筛选的基础上,LOU等[25]开发出31.5 wt.% WO3与5.5 wt.% ZnO 共掺杂的 NiO 体系(简称 NWZO)。该体系经过 640℃模拟钢化工艺处理后(简称 NWZO-640),相比于纯 NiO 体系(NO),在褪色态的短波区域透过率有一定程度的增加(图7a),且薄膜的褪色态颜色由淡黄色变为轻灰色(图7b),薄膜的光学调制幅度增加至 22%[25];此外,经过 3 000 次的电化学循环,光学调制幅度几乎保持不变,且 CV 曲线保持稳定(图7c),拥有相对较大的电荷容量(8.1 mC·cm–2),这得益于在高温钢化条件下体系依然保持一个坚固的且疏松多孔的结构(图7d),这种结构不仅确保高温钢化处理的掺杂 NiO 体系拥有较高的调制幅度、较大的电荷容量,还确保其具有较快的响应时间(着色时间 3.5 s,褪色时间 1.5 s)(图7e)[25]

  • 图7 钢化处理对 NWZO 样品的影响[25](a)光学透过率图(b)外观颜色图(c)CV 曲线(d)SEM 图(e)NWZO-640 实时透过率变化图

  • Fig.7 Influence of tempering on NWZO films[25]. (a) transmittance curves; (b) appearance pictures; (c) CV curves; (d) SEM microstructure (e) in-situ transmittance variation of NWZO-640.

  • 4 固态聚合物电解质胶膜

  • 在 ECD 中,电解质层为电致变色反应提供离子及离子传输通道,同时也起到电子阻隔的作用,是影响器件响应时间、循环寿命的关键因素之一。基于夹层式 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件的应用需求,迫切需要赋予中间电解质层优异的电化学、力学、光学和热学性能,具体可概括为:高的室温离子电导率 (大于 10−7 S·cm−1)、无色透明(大于 90%)、无雾度、高剪切粘结强度(大于 100 kPa)、高的热稳定 (~150℃),并且能够实现大面积电解质胶膜便捷、高效的制备[58]。聚乙烯醇缩丁醛(PVB)是一种热塑性聚合物透明粘结材料,已经作为安全玻璃的中间层材料应用超过 80 年[59]。由于 PVB 是一种本征的非离子导体材料,为了提升 PVB 体系的离子电导率,通常采用两种方式,第一种方式是制备基于固体形态的 PVB 凝胶聚合物电解质(PVB-GPE),即在聚合物链之间的空间中引入大量的溶剂或离子液体(如 N-甲基吡咯烷酮、LiClO4 / 碳酸丙烯酸酯溶液等),进而实现高室温离子导电率(10−3~10−5 S·cm−1[960-61],但是 PVB-GPE 存在粘接强度差、机械性能不足和易燃性等安全问题[62],限制了其在夹层式 ECD 中的应用。第二种方法是将 PVB 转变为全固态的聚合物电解质(SPE),通过高浓度 Li 盐、PEG 或乙醛酸等物质的修饰[63-65],可以制备出不含溶剂的PVB 固态聚合物电解质(PVB-SPE)。该体系可以兼容现有 PVB 生产设备,制备出可自支撑的胶膜,唯一不足的是其室温离子导电率依然偏低(10−5~10−7 S·cm−1[63-65]。因此,有必要进一步提升 PVB-SPE 的室温离子电导率,达到大于 10−5 S·cm−1

  • 针对上述需求,WANG 等[10]利用适量(10%) 的硅烷偶联剂 3-环氧丙基三甲氧基硅烷(KH560)改性 PVB(简称为 BK10),采用溶液浇铸法实现面积 5 cm×5 cm、厚度 100 μm PVB-SPE 胶膜的制备(图8a),依靠交联反应产生三维网络结构调控非晶区域 (图8b、8c),将传统夹层玻璃用 PVB 材料的室温离子电导率提升至 1.51×10−4 S·cm−1 (图8d),离子导电行为在−20℃~80℃范围内符合固态电解质的 Vogel-Tamman-Fulcher(VTF)关系(图8d)[10]。所制备的 PVB-SPE 胶膜可见光透过率大于 91%且无雾度(图8e)、粘接强度高达 2.13 MPa(图8f)[10]。另外 PVB-SPE 胶膜的高温热稳定性可达 150℃(图8g),满足 ECD 器件层压(层压工艺温度 130℃) 和长期使用(着色态器件最高温度可达 80℃)的温度需求[10]。为了面向大尺寸器件的应用需求,材料所团队还掌握更大尺寸(30 cm×30 cm)、高质量 PVB-SPE 胶膜的制备技术(图8h),为大尺寸夹层式 WO3-NiO 器件的制备奠定良好的基础。

  • 图8 PVB-SPE 胶膜的制备与性能表征[10](a)制备流程[10](b)XRD 图谱[10](c)SEM 表面形貌[10](d)不同温度下的离子电导率以及 VTF 模型拟合曲线[10](e)光学透过率图谱[10](f)剪切拉伸的应力-应变曲线[10](g)TGA 曲线[10](h)30×30 cm2 PVB-SPE 胶膜照片

  • Fig.8 Fabrication and characterization of PVB-SPE foil[10]: (a) Fabrication process[10]; (b) XRD curves[10]; (c) SEM surface microstructure[10]; (d) Change in the ionic conductivity with temperature and a VTF-model-based fit to these data[10]; (e) Transmittance spectra and a sample photograph[10]; (f) Stress-strain curves acquired during the lap-shear-strength tests[10]; (g) TGA curvesv and (h) 30 cm×30 cm sized PVB-SPE foil.

  • 5 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件

  • 以前述制备的 PVB-SPE 胶膜为电解质,采用商业化的 glass / WO3 和 glass / NiO 为独立功能层,利用典型的真空层压工艺(图9a~9d)开展 5 cm× 5 cm 器件的制备工作,其中层压工艺温度为 130℃ (图9c)。经过层压后,器件质量良好(图9d)[10],这说明 PVB-SPE 胶膜能满足器件层压工艺的需求。此外,WANG 等还利用玻璃行业常用的大型高压釜开展 30 cm×30 cm 器件的制备技术研究(图9e),所制备的器件也具有均匀的贴合效果,器件的褪色态透过率 65%(图9f),着色态透过率 3%(图9g),调制幅度为 62%,响应时间小于 10 min,进一步证明利用玻璃层压产线现有设备制备大面积 ECD 器件的可行性。此外,针对在新能源汽车天幕、侧挡玻璃节能调光的应用,需要实现具有弧面形状器件的制备能力,为此,中国科学院宁波材料所杨晔等还开展了弧形器件制备的可行性研究,在直径 10 cm、拱高为 0.8 cm 的弧形表面皿玻璃表面进行磁控溅射镀膜,随后以 PVB-SPE 胶膜作为中间层进行层压实验,制备出可均匀着褪色的弧形 WO3-NiO 电致变色器件(图9h),器件在 550 nm 处的调制幅度可达 63%(图9h)。

  • 图9 夹层型器件的制备与表征(a)PVB-SPE 胶膜贴附在 WO3电极上[10](b)覆盖 NiO 电极[10](c)在 130℃真空条件下层压[10](d)组装好的器件[10](e)利用大型高压釜进行器件的层压(f)器件褪色态照片(g)器件着色态照片(h)弧形器件的着褪色照片以及光学透过率图谱

  • Fig.9 Fabrication and characterization of laminated ECD: (a) PVB-SPE being coated on WO3 substrate[10]; (b) Covering a NiO galss[10]; (c) ECD lamination conducted on a hot plate at 130℃[10]; (d) Assembled device[10]; (e) Device lamination operated in a large size autoclave; (f) Bleached ECD; (g) Colored ECD; (h) Curved ECD and its transmittance patterns.

  • 实现 ECD 在着褪色过程中均保持良好的中性色是产业界关注的一个重要问题。为此,HU 等[42]利用所开发的 Nb 掺杂 WO3 体系为着色层、 Si-Li 共掺杂的 NiO 为离子储存层,实现了在着褪色条件下具有高度中性色 ECD 的制备(图10a、 10b),其褪色态的色度值为 a* = −3.6,b* = 0.3,着色态为 a* = 0.6,b* =−2.7。该器件在变色过程中依然保持良好的中性色(图10c~10e),且色度值的绝对值均小于 5(图10d)[42]。更为重要的是,利用 Nb 掺杂 WO3 体系具有红外波段较低的吸收和较高的反射特性(图5b、5c),在所搭建的平台上(图10f、10g)测试红外光照射下着色态器件表面以及密闭空间内部温度的变化情况,研究表明,相对于传统的 WO3 器件,含有 Nb 掺杂 WO3 器件的表面温度和密闭空间内部温度分别降低 7.2℃和 4.3℃(图10h)[42],这说明采用 Nb 掺杂 WO3 体系的器件有助于实现更加节能的智能窗的制造。

  • 图10 基于 WNO-350 / SLNO 的 ECD 的性能表征[42](a)褪色态照片(b)完全着色态下的照片(c)光学透过率图谱(d)色度值坐标(e)不同着色态下的外观照片(f)器件节能测试平台(g)平台示意图(h)器件表面温度与内部空间温度

  • Fig.10 Performance chracterization of WNO-350 / SLNO based ECD[42]: (a) Bleached picture; (b) Fully tinted pictures; (c) Transmittance curves at different coloring level; (d) CIE chromaticity values; (e) Appearance pictures for at different state; (f) Testing platform; (g) Schematic diagram; (h) Device surface temperature and interior space air temperature.

  • 6 结论与展望

  • 针对大面积夹层式 WO3-NiO 电致变色玻璃的低成本制造和新的应用需求,本文综述了从材料到器件方面的研究进展,获得如下结论:

  • (1)制备出致密度大于 90%、具有一定导电性 (电阻值小于 2 kΩ)、可多元掺杂的 WO3 和 NiO 陶瓷靶材,满足磁控溅射沉积电致变色薄膜的需求。

  • (2)采用溅射功率和溅射气压调节 WO3 薄膜的沉积速率、O / W 比以及薄膜结构,进而实现对 EC 性能的调节;采用 18 nm 的非晶 ZTO 缓冲层可以有效缓解室温沉积 WO3 薄膜在 EC 循环过程中的性能衰退;采用高 Nb 掺杂(Nb /(Nb+W)=54.1%)以及后续 RTA 退火处理,实现了体系着色态的中性色 (b*=1.0)。

  • (3)采用 Si-Li 共掺杂与后续 RTA 处理有效提升 NiO 体系的锂离子存储容量和循环稳定性;采用 W 与 Zn 的共掺杂提升了 NiO 薄膜在 640℃模拟钢化条件下的 EC 性能。上述多种的掺杂体系均有助于改善褪色态 NiO 薄膜的色中性。

  • (4)制备出满足器件层压需求的尺寸大于 30 cm × 30 cm、室温离子电导率为 1.5 × 10−4 S·cm−1、可见光透过率大于 91%且无雾度、粘接强度为 2.13 MPa、热稳定性高达 150℃的 PVB-SPE 胶膜。

  • (5)利用商业化的高压釜初步实现了 30 cm× 30 cm WO3-NiO 电致变色器件高质量层压,证明了可行性;利用前述开发的 WNO 体系作为变色层、 SLNO 体系作为离子存储层,制备出具有高度中性着褪色的器件,相比于纯 WO3 体系,这种基于 WNO 的着色态器件还能有效降低器件表面温度以及向室内的热辐射,进一步提升 ECD 的节能效果。

  • 虽然对于夹层式 WO3-NiO 电致变色玻璃的研究取得了一系列进展,但是为了更好的面向实际的应用,还要开展如下的系列研究:

  • (1)对于在建筑门窗领域的应用,仍需要验证大面积器件能否满足大于 10 万次的循环寿命。

  • (2)需要进一步拓宽器件的使用温域,特别是提升低温(小于−20℃)条件下器件的响应速度。

  • (3)聚合电解质含量 Li 盐,而 Li 盐的存在容易吸潮,如何在器件加工和运行中避免水汽的影响还有待进一步探讨。

  • (4)需要从对器件的失效机理入手,找到合适的器件控制策略。

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