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作者简介:

周镇宇,男,1991年出生,硕士研究生。主要研究方向为直升机传动系统齿轮设计。E-mail: 819027189@qq.com

通讯作者:

戴庆文,男,1988年出生,博士,副教授。主要研究方向为表面织构与润滑设计。E-mail: daiqingwen@nuaa.edu.cn

中图分类号:TG668

DOI:10.11933/j.issn.1007-9289.20230509003

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目录contents

    摘要

    我国国防事业的飞速发展对航空高速齿轮提出了更高要求,而有关齿轮副表面摩擦学设计仍是薄弱环节。表面织构技术已成为摩擦学领域的研究热点,在减摩抗磨、减振、抗粘附和抗蠕爬等多个领域展示出良好的应用潜力。有关齿面织构化设计研究尚处于起步阶段,还远未能形成规范成熟的设计理念和方法。对当前在齿轮表面摩擦学设计及表面织构化方面的研究工作进行全面综述。首先从齿轮表面摩擦学设计基本要求展开介绍,指出表面粗糙度和表面纹理是齿轮副表面摩擦学设计的关键,而大量研究已经证实,不管是滚动还是滑动摩擦,并非表面越光滑摩擦学性能越优异,在齿轮副表面织构化设计方面的研究工作已经展开。随后对现有齿轮副表面织构化的研究工作进行梳理,总结齿面织构化处理后带来的性能增益,主要包括减摩抗磨效应、表面强化效应、减振和降温效应。接着,介绍齿轮弹流润滑数值计算方面的研究进展,总结在表面纹理、表面织构对齿轮副的弹流润滑特性影响机制方面的研究。随后,对齿轮副表面织构加工技术进行对比分析,主要包括织构激光刻蚀、织构掩膜电解和织构微磨料射流等特种加工技术的优劣。对现有研究不足和潜在研究方向进行展望,从织构设计和加工等方面对齿轮表面织构化设计提供指导,研究结果可为未来航空高速齿轮副表面织构化设计提供科学指导和数据支撑,填补该领域研究空白并扩大表面织构应用领域。

    Abstract

    The rapid advancement in national defense technology has escalated the demands on aviation equipment. The importance and prominence of gears, being fundamental components, has been steadily increasing. Nonetheless, the development of surface tribological properties for gear pairs remains a challenge. Focusing on the tribology and texture design of gear pair surfaces holds the promise of significantly enhancing their service performance and advancing the design of high-reliability and long-life aerospace gears. This study begins with an overview of the basic meshing characteristics of gear pairs and delves into how surface roughness impacts their performance. It has been discovered that diminishing surface roughness effectively contributes to wear resistance. For decades, the tribological design of gear surfaces has evolved toward achieving higher precision and smoother finishes, grounded in conventional mechanical design and tribology principles. Despite advancements in polishing techniques, the average roughness of aviation gear teeth surfaces has been capped at approximately 0.4 μm. Given the considerations for processing cost-effectiveness, endlessly minimizing surface roughness is impractical. Recent research has demonstrated that under conditions of either rolling or sliding friction, a smoother surface does not necessarily equate to superior wear resistance and friction reduction outcomes.

    Then, the influences of surface texture on the tribological performance of gear pairs are discussed. Over the past few decades, researchers from both domestic and international spheres have conducted extensive studies on the surface texturing design of gear pairs. The formation of surface textures through various processes is presented, along with a detailed review of the current research on gear surface texture design, covering both experimental investigations and theoretical simulations. According to the literature available, the benefits of surface texturing on performance are outlined, primarily encompassing friction reduction, wear resistance, surface strengthening, vibration damping, and temperature mitigation effects.

    Subsequently, advancements in the numerical calculation of gear elastic-fluid lubrication are introduced, summarizing the effects of surface texture and texturing on the elastic-fluid lubrication characteristics of gear pairs. The prevailing numerical simulation efforts related to gear pairs mainly address two factors: surface roughness and texture. Historically, simulations of elastic-fluid lubrication for gear pairs predominantly utilized the infinite-length wire contact model. However, recent research has gradually shifted from this non-linear-length wire contact model to finite-length models that more accurately reflect the real contact length under actual surface conditions and mixed lubrication conditions, acknowledging the limitations of real wire contact length. Surface texture represents the three-dimensional morphology on the tooth surface, making the two-dimensional infinite-length model inadequate for current research needs. Investigating how to extend the application of three-dimensional wire contact models to numerically simulate surface texture, considering surface roughness, is of significant interest.

    Following this, a comparative analysis of various surface texturing processing technologies for gear surfaces is conducted. This includes examining the advantages and disadvantages of specialized processing techniques such as laser etching, mask electrolysis, and micro abrasive jet texturing. Finally, a summary and outlook of the surface texture design of gear surfaces are proposed, including the existing research gaps and future research directions. Current design approaches for the surface texturing of gear pairs involve theoretical simulation and experimental optimization. Although surface textures present clear benefits and potential for application, it is important to recognize the challenges in designing surface textures for high-speed aviation gears, which remain areas for further exploration. The efficacy of surface textures on tooth surfaces is intrinsically linked to their operational conditions. The primary challenges are twofold: the design of gear surface textures and advancement of gear manufacturing technologies. Surface textures are believed to significantly enhance tribological performance, offering innovative solutions for the design of high-reliability and long-life aviation gears. This approach is anticipated to bridge the research gap in this domain and broaden the future application of surface texturing.

  • 0 前言

  • 随着我国国防事业的飞速发展,各类极端工况不断涌现,对航空发动机、武装直升机、重载运输直升机等高端装备提出了更高要求。齿轮是航空动力系统的核心基础零部件,作为承受载荷和传递动力的载体,其性能优劣直接决定了航空装备的服役寿命[1-6]

  • 齿面接触疲劳是齿轮主要失效形式之一。循环接触载荷下齿轮表面或近表面会产生疲劳损伤,损伤累积后齿面将出现麻点、点蚀、深层剥落与裂纹,最终导致齿面接触疲劳。据统计,因齿面疲劳失效引发的传动系统失效比例高达 80%[7-8]。航空领域高温、高转速和重载等极端工况对齿轮提出了更高的要求,其齿面硬度高(大于 HRC60)且渗层较深、精度高(5 级及以上)、表面粗糙度要求高(Ra< 0.4 μm)。高功率输出条件下,润滑不充分易引发齿面胶合;高转速和重载还会引起齿轮副振动、噪声和动载荷,导致齿面非线性振动、扰乱齿面润滑介质流动,破坏润滑油膜稳定性。考虑到航空齿轮加工成本高,使用寿命要求高,在不发生损伤的前提下提高其抗磨损及振动服役性能至关重要。

  • 航空苛刻服役工况况迫切需要齿轮的摩擦学性能可以达到更高的水平。而当前,齿轮副设计主要聚焦于齿轮副接触疲劳、弯曲疲劳和抗胶合承载能力等方面[9-15],针对航空高速齿轮副表面摩擦学性能的设计仍是薄弱环节,这是制约航空高端机械装备发展的关键瓶颈。

  • 近年来,表面织构技术已成为摩擦学领域的研究热点。表面织构(Surface texture,下称织构)的概念雏形(Surface microirregularity)于 1966 年由 HAMILTON 等[16]首次提出,是指为了获得特定功能,在摩擦副表面设计加工的具有一定规则的几何纹理 / 结构阵列分布。表面织构的降磨减摩及提高承载能力的特性已被大量研究并获得广泛认可[17-22]。目前,已在航空航天等领域高端机械装备中获得成功应用,如在某航天齿轮泵中,织构化表面摩擦因数最大降低了 45%,磨损量最大减小了 87.5%,台架试验时间已达到 1 万 h 的寿命指标,是光滑表面的 3 倍以上[23]

  • 图1 统计了自 20 世纪 90 年代以来,表面织构在摩擦学领域[24]和齿轮表面的年度出版物数量。应该讲,表面织构自被提出以来,已引起了国内外学者的广泛的关注,相关研究论文数量急剧增加。目前国内外已有不少有关齿轮表面织构化设计的研究报道[25-28]。本文拟对齿轮表面摩擦学设计与表面织构化研究进行综述,内容涉及表面粗糙度、表面纹理和表面织构设计等方面,归纳总结齿轮副表面织构化设计的减摩、耐磨、降噪及减振特性,探讨织构化齿面弹流润滑计算方法,随后对齿面织构加工技术进行介绍,最后指出齿轮表面织构化设计存在的问题,并展望未来的研究难点,可为航空高速齿轮副表面织构化设计提供参考。

  • 图1 表面织构在摩擦学[24]和齿轮方向的年度出版物数量

  • Fig.1 Annual number of publications on surface texturing in tribology[24] and gear

  • 1 齿轮表面摩擦学设计

  • 齿轮传动是利用齿面啮合实现功率传递。开始啮合时,主动齿和从动齿在接触点相对速度差异最大,两表面存在明显的相对滑动;啮合过程中接触点相对速度差异逐渐缩小,啮合到节点时速度相同,两表面变为纯滚动;滑动与滚动摩擦交替并存。在大冲击力和交变载荷作用下,齿面摩擦磨损是齿轮副功率损耗的主要原因,而合理的润滑是改善滚滑工况下齿轮副摩擦学性能的关键。通常认为,齿轮副啮合界面为弹性流体动压润滑( EHL, Elastohydrodynamic lubrication),齿轮啮合时局部接触压力极高,界面发生了相当大的弹性变形,润滑油粘性增强和高接触压力弹性变形协同作用下界面会形成有效的弾流润滑油膜[29-30]。理想情况下,啮合界面的 EHL 油膜厚度为纳米级,而真实齿轮表面粗糙度为微米或亚微米级,粗糙度会对弹流润滑油膜产生显著影响,导致接触界面处于边界或混合润滑工况,润滑油难以在接触界面保持良好的润滑状态。过去几十年,针对齿轮表面摩擦学设计的工作主要是围绕提升齿面加工质量展开,以此提高齿轮表面摩擦学性能。

  • TANAKA 等[31]早期研究表明,齿面粗糙度会擦伤齿轮表面,破坏润滑油膜,导致齿面黏结并形成转移膜,而降低齿轮表面粗糙度可弱化其作用。 NAKATSUJI 等[32]研究发现,利用电化学抛光技术对齿面进行精加工,将其表面粗糙度控制在 0.1 μm 左右可将齿面耐磨性能提升近 50%。电解抛光后齿面形成无规则微孔可有效存储润滑油(图2),而电解抛光生成的氧化物保护层增加了表面的耐磨性。为探究表面微粗糙度对齿轮摩擦学特性的影响,BRITTON 等[33]通过磨削、超精加工获得 0.4 μm 和 0.05 μm 两种不同粗糙度的齿轮副;研究发现,相比于传统磨削加工的齿轮副,转速 5 000 r / min 条件下,超精加工的齿轮副摩擦力降低近30%,表面温度降低近10℃。美国陆军研究中心 KRANTZ 等[34]进一步研究了表面粗糙度对齿轮疲劳寿命的影响,为了工程化应用,他们直接选用了航空齿轮常用材料 AISI9310、直升机变速箱润滑油 DOD-L-85734 进行试验;研究发现,在 1.71 GPa 赫兹接触应力、3×109 次循环试验条件下, AISI9310 钢制齿轮表面超精加工(表面表面粗糙度 0.07 μm)后寿命比未处理表面(表面粗糙度 0.4 μm) 提升近 4 倍,且其他性能几乎不变。

  • 图2 不同工艺获得的齿面扫描电镜形貌[32]

  • Fig.2 Scanning electron micrograph of test gear[32]

  • ANDERSSON 等[35]进一步研究发现,提升表面粗糙度可以提高齿轮副磨合阶段效率;但表面粗糙度值存在一个极限,当表面粗糙度低于 0.08 μm 时,齿轮副效率不再提升。事实上,BRITTON 等[33]也指出,对于表面粗糙度仅为 0.05 μm 的光滑齿轮表面,计算获得的纳米级油膜厚度依然远小于表面粗糙度量级,航空齿轮极端服役工况下,表面微粗糙纹理在齿轮啮合过程中依旧会发生齿面胶合,导致齿面失效。为降低齿轮表面粗糙度,滚磨光整加工[36]、电化学珩磨[37-38]、脉冲电化学机械抛光[39]、齿面喷丸强化[40]和激光冲击强化[41]等技术,均被用于提高齿面质量,改善齿轮副服役性能。

  • 正如前文所述,降低表面粗糙度可有效提升齿面抗磨性能。目前,我国航空齿轮齿面磨齿加工后表面粗糙度约为 0.4 μm,辅助震动抛光可达到 0.3 μm 左右,磨粒磨损和齿面胶合是其主要失效形式。在考虑加工经济性的前提下,难以无限降低表面粗糙度来改善齿轮副摩擦学性能。如何进一步提升齿轮副摩擦学性能,是困扰研究人员的一大难题。

  • 事实上,除表面粗糙度之外,表面纹理也是齿面表面重要参数之一。机械加工的齿轮表面必然存在表面纹理,且其与齿轮成型工艺直接相关。如图3 所示,国际 ISO 标准(ISO TR 10064-4)对典型工艺获得的齿面纹理及其排布形式进行了详细的描述[42],主要包括磨齿(Grinding)、滚齿(Hobbing)、插齿 (Shaping)、剃齿(Shaving)和珩齿(Honing)等。

  • MERTENS 等[44]研究发现,对于金属和高分子材料组成的齿轮副(316 不锈钢 / 聚丙烯),齿轮副啮合点温升与表面纹理正相关,降低表面纹理的粗糙度可以显著降低啮合点温度。当前普遍认为,随着表面纹理的改善,齿轮副摩擦力、温升均会有不同程度的下降,齿面微点蚀也会被抑制,进而获得传动效率和服役寿命的提升[45-48]。然而,这里所谓的表面纹理改善,仅是降低同一类型表面纹理的粗糙度,并未曾关注不同类型表面纹理对齿面摩擦学性能的影响。

  • 图3 常见齿轮制造工艺及表面纹理方向[43]

  • Fig.3 Common gear manufacturing processes and lay directions[43]

  • 研究齿轮表面纹理对其摩擦学性能影响有着非常现实的应用意义。两个光滑表面接触并且发生相对滑动,理论上是能达到减小摩擦和磨损的效果,这是过去机械设计和摩擦学理论中的共识,一直以来,齿轮副表面摩擦学设计均是朝高精度和高光洁度的方向发展。

  • 近年来,大量研究工作表明,不管是滚动还是滑动摩擦,并非表面越光滑摩擦学性能越优异。由于现代机械加工技术无法完全避免表面纹理的产生,表面纹理广泛存在于机械零部件摩擦副表面。发动机活塞 / 缸套摩擦副表面的交叉纹理最为典型,研究人员已证实交叉纹理是实现减摩和抗磨的有效途径(图4a)[49],就其作用机制也已达成基本共识:表面交叉纹理有利于润滑油的存储及油膜的形成和保持,且具有较高的表面支撑力,能够承受较大载荷、耐磨损,避免拉缸等故障的产生。 WILLIS[49]指出,在相同表面粗糙度下,交叉网纹的截面形貌可以存在多种形式(图4b),交叉网纹设计时必须考虑该因素的影响。而得益于特种加工技术的发展,研究人员可以在摩擦副表面主动加工具有一定规则排布的微结构阵列,上述问题得到完美解决。

  • 图4 细磨削加工的交叉网纹扫描电镜形貌图和具有相同粗糙度的不同表面网纹截面形貌示意图[49]

  • Fig.4 Scanning electron micrograph of the surface produced from fine grit abrasive tool and schematic diagram showing that different forms can give the same roughness[49]

  • 表面织构技术应运而生。在 20 世纪 90 年代, ETSION 等[50]使用激光在机械密封表面加工了微凹坑阵列,用以提高了密封的承载力。当前,表面织构设计与制造已在减摩抗磨[2251-52]、增摩[53]、减振[54]、抗粘附[55]和抗蠕爬[56]等多个领域展示出良好的应用前景,成为现代机械设备高效化、小型化及高可靠性的有效途径[57]。人们对不同润滑工况下表面织构的作用机制有了更清晰的认知:在干摩擦工况下,它可以容纳磨屑避免三体磨损效应[58];边界润滑和混合润滑工况下,它可以存储润滑油提供二次润滑效应[59];在流体动压润滑工况下,一定条件下它可以产生附加流体动压效应[60]

  • 研究人员在齿轮副表面织构化设计方面的研究工作已经展开。当前的试验研究尚处于起步阶段,其基本思路是通过特定的加工方法制备具有特定尺寸的表面织构(如几何形貌、结构深度和排布方式和面积率等),采用齿轮摩擦磨损试验机、齿轮齿面接触检测机、高频疲劳试验机、面 / 面滚动接触摩擦磨损试验机(控制夹带速度获得不同的滚动 / 滑动比、模拟齿轮啮合)来研究织构化齿轮副的摩擦学性能。

  • 鉴于此,对现有齿轮副表面织构化的研究工作进行梳理,总结齿面织构化处理后带来的性能增益,有望为未来航空高速齿轮副表面织构化设计及工程应用提供科学指导和数据支撑。

  • 2 齿轮表面织构化试验

  • 2.1 减摩抗磨效应

  • 为获得表面微织构对重载齿轮传动摩擦性能的影响,刘莹等[61]理论建模分析了 Magg 交叉织构、普通磨削纹理和凹坑型表面织构的摩擦学性能,并通过封闭功率流式齿轮试验机(MRC-1 型 FZG 齿轮副摩擦磨损试验机),比较了上述织构在同种润滑油润滑下的摩擦磨损性能,证实了凹坑型表面织构可以获得更小的摩擦因数。何国旗等[62-63]研究了齿面凹坑织构参数的影响,制备了多种微凹坑型表面织构(直径 50~200 μm、凹坑深度 5~20 μm,面积率 30%),并采用 YD9550 型齿轮齿面接触检测机进行试验,研究发现,油膜厚度沿啮合轨迹逐渐增大,凹坑深度为 10 μm、直径为 100 μm 时,润滑膜厚度提升效果最佳,如图5 所示。LI 等[64]利用激光加工了直径 50、80 和 110 μm,深度 2 μm,面积率 14%的凹坑型表面织构,研究发现,相比于光滑表面,直径 80 和 110 μm 的凹坑具有较低的摩擦因数,而直径 50 μm 的凹坑摩擦因数始终较高,这意味着大直径凹坑有利于润滑油膜的形成与维持,提供良好的润滑性能。

  • 图5 面齿轮齿面织构化形貌以及在不同变量下最小油膜厚度的理论与实验值的比较[63]

  • Fig.5 Pits of face gear tooth surface and comparison of theoretical and experimental values of the minimum film thickness of face gears with different pit depth, and pit diameter[63]

  • 2.2 表面强化效应

  • GRECO 等[65]利用激光加工了凹坑型表面织构 (直径 85 μm,深度 7.4 μm,面积率 10%),发现织构化处理可将表面擦伤载荷极限增加 183%,证实了表面织构对表面刮擦的抑制作用。韩志武等[66-68]探究了表面织构对齿面接触疲劳和齿根弯曲疲劳性能的影响,利用激光加工了 9 种不同形态的交叉条纹型表面织构(条纹宽度、横 / 纵向间距参数不同),并采用 PLG 高频疲劳试验机进行性能验证,研究发现,在齿面加工沟槽型表面织构可将齿面抗接触疲劳性能提高 20%以上,而在齿根加工网格型表面织构最高可将齿轮弯曲疲劳寿命提高 1.42 倍(图6)。激光加工可以细化齿面表层晶粒生成残余压应力,产生齿面强化效应。对于接触疲劳强度[66],均匀分布的微小仿生单元能有效阻滞轮齿表面材料的滑移运动,有效减少疲劳裂纹的产生,使得疲劳裂纹不能在其表面快速地散播。对于弯曲疲劳强度[67],表面织构高硬度不仅降低了疲劳裂纹产生几率,且其积累的残余压应力的缓慢释放可以抵消部分齿根受到的拉应力作用,遏制了齿根处部分疲劳裂纹萌生的可能性。

  • PETARE 等[69]利用纳秒激光在直齿圆柱齿轮齿面加工长方形表面织构,并采用磨粒流对齿面抛光,制备了 HSG(Hobbed spur gear)、AFF(Abrasive flow finishing)及 LTHSG(Laser-textured hobbed spur gears)齿轮组进行对照试验。研究结果表明,LTHSG 处理后的齿面耐磨性和微硬度获得大幅度改善,硬度提升近 20%,摩擦因数降低近 35%,且齿轮表面未产生任何热损伤(图7)。随后,采用类似工艺对斜齿轮和直齿锥齿轮表面进行处理,LTHSG 处理能将齿面硬度提升近 50%,摩擦因数降低近 40%[70]。齿轮副表面织构化后磨粒流可在齿面以弯曲路径运动,挤压力作用下磨料颗粒会持续冲击表面织构,导致晶格结构扭曲生成亚晶界诱导表面残余压应力,产生表面强化效应。

  • 图6 齿轮试样及网格型仿生表面织构的弯曲疲劳寿命与弯曲应力载荷的对应关系[67]

  • Fig.6 The gear specimen and gird bionic surface micro-mophology the relationship between bending fatigue life and load value[67]

  • 图7 织构化和未织构化处理齿轮表面形貌在不同工艺参数下织构化齿面的显微硬度和摩擦因数对比[69]

  • Fig.7 Photograph of untextured and textured gears, and comparisons of microhardness values and variation of friction factor with time during fretting wear test for textured gears under different processing technics[69]

  • 2.3 减振和降温效应

  • GUPTA 等[71-72]采用化学刻蚀技术在齿轮副表面加工了面积率为 11%的微凹坑型表面织构,凹坑直径由齿轮分度圆向两侧逐渐变大( 250~600 μm),试验发现,织构化齿面可以显著降低齿轮啮合频率处的幅值,与常规齿面相比降幅最高可达 50%,减振效果十分明显(图8);椭圆型表面织构(长短半轴 100 μm / 25 μm,深度 15 μm,面积率15%)也有具备类似效果,它可将齿轮副系统振幅降低 40%,表面温升降低 15℃。考虑到啮合区油膜厚度与接触电阻正相关,GUPTA 等[73]通过测量接触电阻发现,相比于常规齿轮,织构化齿面啮合点接触电阻增加近 300%,这意味着表面织构可在齿轮啮合界面形成有效的润滑油膜。

  • 图8 齿轮试样及微凹坑型表面织构、织构化齿轮副的齿面温度云图和齿轮啮合频率的振动幅值[71-72]

  • Fig.8 Schematic, photographic, and SEM images of textured teeth surface, temperature images, and vibration amplitudes at the gear mesh [71-72]

  • 总的来看,研究人员就表面织构能否提升齿轮摩擦学性能持肯定态度,合理的设计齿面织构可获得减摩抗磨、表面强化、减振和降温等性能的提升。但需要承认的是,目前的研究主要以改变织构参数来探究其对齿轮副摩擦学性能影响为主,研究结论受限于试验工况,齿面织构化设计尚未形成清晰的设计理念和方法。

  • 3 齿轮弹流润滑数值计算

  • 齿轮啮合界面为弹流润滑(EHL),研究人员通常采用Dowson-Higginson最小膜厚经验公式来分析齿轮润滑问题[29]。然而,真实啮合过程中,不同啮合点的齿面载荷、曲率半径和卷吸速度会沿啮合线随时变化,且界面压力、局部温度会引起润滑油黏度和密度等物性参数的变化,齿轮传动的弹流润滑属于复杂的瞬态弹流润滑问题[74-80]。非光滑齿面弹流润滑计算依旧是齿轮润滑设计的热点与难点,相关的研究工作可归纳如下。

  • 3.1 表面纹理

  • 研究表面纹理对弹流润滑的影响的关键是对表面形貌进行重构。AI 等[81]采用正弦分布、随机分布算法重构和表面纹理,并采用多重网格算法,计算了横向、斜向和纵向三种不同方向的表面纹理对点接触弹流润滑性能的影响,数值模拟发现,相比于横向和纵向表面纹理,斜向纹理会引起较大的局部油膜压力波动,由其引起的油膜厚度变化已经高于表面纹理自身粗糙度,可能会导致局部润滑失效。为了进一步考虑热效应,徐彩虹等[82]建立了具有粗糙纹理的齿轮齿条热弹流润滑分析模型,并采用多重网格算法获得了不同粗糙纹理下的压力与膜厚数值解,发现矩形和三角形粗糙纹理表面粗糙峰和粗糙谷内都会形成局部弹流、提供油膜压力。

  • 上述模型建立过程中,将齿轮啮合过程简化为圆柱在无限大平面上滚动,与真实啮合过程存在差异。高志强等[83]将宏观的线接触弹流润滑问题转换为介观的双粗糙表面接触问题,建立了更符合实际工况的双粗糙表面弹塑性流体动力润滑界面法向接触刚度模型(图9),揭示了法向载荷、卷吸速度、表面粗糙度和润滑介质特性等因素对润滑界面法向接触刚度的影响规律。RUAN 等[84]建立了微观纹理形态对齿轮啮合接触特性模型和界面摩擦动力学耦合模型,探究了齿面纹理对润滑油膜分布、摩擦热、粘性阻尼及振动的影响。研究发现,相比于随机表面纹理,齿面规则分布的微观纹理可以明显有效地降低啮合齿轮的振动和噪声。

  • 图9 线接触润滑模型[83]

  • Fig.9 Line contact lubrication model[83]

  • 为了进一步贴近真实工况,BOBACH 等[85]建立了渐开线直齿轮瞬态三维热弹性润滑的接触模型,并考虑质量守恒空化、非牛顿流和齿面纹理的影响,采用广义雷诺、能量和傅里叶热方程的综合求解,获得了齿轮表面粗糙度和表面纹理对齿面温升、油膜压力的影响。

  • 3.2 表面织构

  • 由于表面微织构的尺度比表面粗糙纹理高 1~2 个数量级,此时固体材料变形会受到微织构变形的影响,织构化齿面弹流润滑计算过程中,微织构的变形效应不容忽视。SHINKARENKO 等[86]较早地研究了弹流润滑中表面织构变形的影响,通过建立织构化弹性体表面与刚性光滑表面相对滑动模型,基于弹性体线性变形假设,获得了不同织构参数下表面变形对油膜承载能力和摩擦力的影响规律。随后, SHINKARENKO 等 [87] 采用对数应变和 Mooney-Rivlin 本构法分别考虑弹性体的几何非线性和物理非线性,证实了采用简单的线性弹性模型可获得与非线性弹性模型相近的结果,且计算量可以得到大幅度简化。这为后期开展齿轮副表明织构化计算过程简化提供了理论依据。为获得表面织构形状设计方法,YU 等[88-89]基于雷诺方程计算了圆形、椭圆形和三角形等几类表面织构的流体动压润滑性能,研究发现,长轴垂直于流体运动方向的椭圆形织构能获得最大的承载能力。相比于常见的对称几何形状,非对称几何形状的表面织构能获得更加优异的流体动压润滑性能[90]

  • 织构化齿轮副表面流润滑计算的难度较大。当前,研究人员主要从油膜厚度及其压力、啮合频率、接触应力等角度分析织构化齿面带来性能增益。李直等[91]建立了线接触弹流状态下具有相同表面粗糙度的四种表面织构的弹流润滑模型,研究了不同工况下接触界面织构弹性变形的影响,发现线接触弹流润滑下织构化表面将发生弹性变形可有效地增加润滑油膜厚度,且微凹坑型表面织构面积率越大,油膜越厚。CHANG 等[92]为获得凹槽纹理对织构化齿面内油液流动的影响,将三维凹槽纹理模型简化为二维凹槽纹理 CFD 模型(图10),计算发现在一定数量的沟槽参数(宽度、深度等)下,模型中心接触区的油膜压力显著增加,表明凹槽纹理的存在对增强流体动压和提高油膜承载能力起着重要作用。ZHAO 等[93]基于三维混合弹流流体动力润滑模型,来评估激光表面织构在齿轮润滑上的摩擦性能,发现齿面微织构可以增加局部的膜厚,大大提高了齿面的润滑性能。韩志武等[94]对普通齿轮和仿生表面织构齿轮进行模态分析,计算得到 10 阶固有频率和振型,表面织构齿轮与传统齿轮相比其各阶最大振幅更小,固有频率显著降低且趋势更为平缓,表面织构化有效地改善了齿轮的动态特性。苏永生等 [95]开展齿面沟槽织构对齿面应力的有限元仿真模拟,研究发现织构化齿面的接触应力明显高于光滑齿面,沟槽宽度对接触应力影响最为显著,而随着沟槽深度加深,接触应力小幅降低。

  • 图10 渐开线圆柱圆柱齿轮圆柱滚子模型、展开图及凹槽织构单元[92]

  • Fig.10 Cylindrical roller model with groove texture, its development diagram, and groove texture unit of involution cylindrical spur gear[92]

  • 总体而言,当前有关齿轮副的数值模拟工作主要从表面纹理和表面织构两方面展开,表面织构和表面纹理存在相通之处。过去,齿轮副弹流润滑数值模拟大多是基于无限长线接触模型,而近年来,考虑到线接触的真实接触长度有限,在表面真实形貌和混合润滑工况下,越来越多的研究工作将思路从无线长线接触模型转化到有限长线接触模型。事实上,表面纹理和表面织构都是三维形貌在齿面上的体现,而二维无限长模型已经不能满足研究要求,如何将表面粗糙度的三维线接触模型拓展应用于表面织构数值模拟值得深究。广义上讲,传统加工技术在齿面形成表面纹理和特种加工技术在齿面形成的规则排布微结构阵列均属于表面微结构范畴,其主要区别在于织构化表面微结构更为规则,且其几何尺度通常比表面纹理高 1~2 个数量级。在接触模型建立过程中,以线接触润滑模型为主,大多是采用有限差分法对其控制方程(雷诺方程、弹性变形方程等)进行表面压力的数值求解,为了提高整个求解过程的效率,对压力求解采用多重网格法,膜厚计算则采用多重网格积分法,具有收敛性好、收敛速度快等优点。此外,对于收敛性较差的情况,采用 Gauss-Seidel 和 Jacobi 双极子迭代方法来提高其收敛性。齿轮线接触弹流润滑数值计算主要难点体现在模型数值解的收敛问题,由于弹流数值求解需要把 Reynolds 方程、弹性变形方程、粘压方程和能量方程联立起来耦合求解,具有一定的复杂性,而且一般的弹流程序不具有普适性,所以工况条件发生变化时,直接使用相应的程序不一定能够得到收敛解。表面织构的设计参数体现在膜厚方程上,表面织构通常是会比表面粗糙度高 1~2 个数量级,所以表面织构可能会对原先的弹流润滑程序上带来一定的难度和限制。比如当深径比过大时,界面压力的变化过于剧烈,导致最终程序得不到收敛解。

  • 4 齿轮表面织构化加工技术

  • 4.1 织构激光刻蚀

  • 激光蚀刻的基本原理是将高光束质量激光聚焦于极小的光点上,在焦点上形成高功率密度,将所需要加工的区域表面材料瞬间蒸发从而获得所需要微结构的加工技术。随着激光的短波长和短脉宽的发展,激光刻蚀加工技术已经成为制备表面微织构最直接高效的技术手段之一,具有加工效率高和材料范围广等优点(金属 / 非金属材料均适用)[96-99]。在齿面织构加工方面,吕尤等[100]将 CT-200Ⅱ数控激光雕刻机用于齿轮啮合表面织构加工,通过数控机床来控制齿轮的旋转和移动,在轮齿节线附近的区域刻蚀出网格状微结构。张永胜[101]基于激光刻蚀技术制备了多种与贝类等生物体体表相似,具有不同微小宽度和深度的,并规则排列的条纹状仿生表面形态,并把优选过后的表面形态制备在轮齿表面上获得微织构齿轮。PETARE 等[69]研究了用激光刻蚀法辅以磨粒流光整加工,在事先加工好的沟槽状织构上磨出一层与之垂直的纹理,形成网状纹理,表面先前所残留的毛刺也在这一过程中被清理,改善了表面形貌。

  • 4.2 织构掩膜电解

  • 掩模电解技术是在工件表面涂上光刻胶,经过光刻后,裸露在外的部分在其表面形成一定的图案,通过电解处理去除材料的暴露部分,以得到一定深层结构的加工技术[102-105]。由于它能加工出微米级甚至亚微米级的复杂形状,现在广泛用于金属薄壁零件和微机械元件表面微小孔群加工,是航空航天、微电子工业和微机械工业的重要加工技术之一。张腾飞[106]利用掩膜电解加工技术在齿面加工了微沟槽,图11 所示为其加工过程示意图,并对其加工工艺参数(电解液类型、电解电压、加工间隙、掩膜宽度等)进行了详细地探究,并验证了齿面微织构电解加工的可靠性。

  • 图11 齿面织构掩膜电解加工示意图[106]

  • Fig.11 Schematic diagram of ECM with the mask using shaped cathode[106]

  • 4.3 织构微磨料射流

  • 磨料射流加工原理是工件表面被高速的微小磨料粒子所轰击,所产生的机械剪切力使得表面材料被去除。这些磨料粒子被喷嘴小孔高速喷出,从而达到加工目的。与其他加工技术相比,磨料射流因其具有无热损伤、高柔性和材料适用性强等特点,被广泛用在微结构加工和微流道制备等领域,已经由宏观尺度向微观尺度转变,由粗加工向精加工转变[107]。胡焰等[108-110]将微织构掩膜和磨料射流加工技术结合,成功地在碳化硅密封环表面加工了螺旋微沟槽织构,研究发现,采用适当的喷嘴倾斜角度、使用硬金刚石磨料或选择大尺寸的 SiC 磨料等方法可提高加工效率和表面加工质量,如图12 所示。

  • 图12 多相射流加工原理图[110]

  • Fig.12 Schematic diagrams of the multiphase jet machining process[110]

  • 除此之外,其他特种加工技术,如电射流[111]、微细数控钻铣[112]和超声冲击[113]等也可用于表面微结构加工,如电射流加工技术,是以阴极为喷嘴,阳极为被加工工件,喷嘴所喷出的电解液将喷嘴与工件之间的电路相连接,在工件表面发生阳极溶解以去除材料的加工技术。NATSU 等[114]利用该方法,成功地将复杂的微沟槽图案加工在了圆柱表面。微细数控钻铣是利用微细刀具在数控加工中心对零件表面进行微细切削的超精加工技术,随着现代加工技术的发展,微细数控钻铣加工精度已经能达到微米级。陈妮等[115]利用该技术,在刀具表面加工出多种微米结构阵列。超声冲击技术是利用超声发生装置推动工具产生超频振动冲击被加工件表面,使金属表层发生塑性变形、进而实现材料去除的目的。张云电等[113]利用该技术,成功在发动机缸套内表面加工出直径为 5~8 μm 微凹坑结构阵列。总的来说,特种加工技术的飞速发展,为表面织构应用领域和研究空间的扩展提供了必要保障。

  • 5 结论与展望

  • 5.1 结论

  • 国防事业的飞速发展对航空航天等高端机械装备提出了更高要求,齿轮作为核心基础零部件,其重要性和地位日益凸显。研究人员在齿轮表面织构化设计理论和试验方面的研究工作已经有序展开。就当前研究结果来看,齿轮表面织构化可提供减摩抗磨、表面强化、减振和降温等诸多增益效应,数值仿真也证实了齿面织构化可提高油膜承载力、减小齿面应力集中。

  • 表面织构化设计具有明显的技术优势和应用前景,具备减小摩擦、降低磨损和提高承载能力等诸多优势,且已经在航空航天领域等关键装备中获得实际应用。这也坚定了人们开展航空高速齿轮设计的信心,避免其成为下一个“卡脖子”技术。开展航空高速齿轮副表面织构化设计,有望突破极端工况下航空齿轮疲劳磨损失效的技术瓶颈,提升航空航天领域苛刻工况下齿轮副的服役性能,为高可靠性、长寿命航空齿轮设计提供新思路,为新一代航空发动机技术的发展提供理论基础和使能技术。

  • 需要说明的是,公开报道的研究只是针对论文中某特定工况条件,不可避免地存在报喜不报忧的现象。在一定工况条件下获得了显著的减摩抗磨和降温减震效果,但在其他工况条件下是否还能达到同样的效果,特别在航空齿轮苛刻服役工况下,是否能够获得最佳效果,有待进一步探究。

  • 5.2 展望

  • 表面织构减摩耐磨效应与摩擦副工况密切相关,根据实际工况设计表面织构,扬长避短是获得最佳服役性能的关键。目前,航空高速齿轮副苛刻服役工况下的表面织构化设计有诸多难点亟待探索,其核心可归为齿面织构化设计和制造两点,后续研究应围绕这两方面展开。

  • 5.2.1 齿面织构化设计

  • 设计是灵魂,完善齿轮副表面织构化设计方案是首要任务,当前织构化方案尚未形成统一认知,一些共性问题有待明确,具体如下。

  • (1)硬 / 软齿面。齿轮副存在软硬齿面之分,将织构加工在硬齿面还是软齿面目前尚无明确的定论。

  • (2)大 / 小齿轮齿面。大 / 小齿轮齿面织构化因遵循的设计原则尚不知晓。

  • (3)单侧 / 双侧齿面。直观上看,单 / 双侧齿面织构化设计应该与单 / 双向传动一一对应;但双侧加工有可能会削弱单齿的力学性能,是否有必要双侧加工表面织构有待解明。

  • (4)齿顶 / 分度 / 齿根圆处织构化。齿轮啮合时,滚滑润滑工况交替存在,啮合点接触压力、卷吸速度和滚滑比等参数均随啮合点实时变化;可以预想,齿面不同位置处的最佳微结构形貌并不相同;而考虑到表面织构可提供流体动压润滑、容纳磨削、存储润滑油、二次润滑等诸多优势,针对齿面织构位置的优化设计同样关键。

  • (5)不同类型齿轮副表面织构化。航空高速齿轮副类型众多,尤其是服役于高速、高温、高压等苛刻工况的齿轮副表面织构化方案有待明确。

  • (6)除上述基础共性问题之外,针对特定类型表面织构的几何参数设计与优化十分必要,具体包括织构形状、面积率、深 / 径比、排布方式等。

  • 数值计算方面,由于弹流数值求解需要将 Reynolds 方程、弹性变形方程、粘压方程和能量方程联立耦合求解,具有一定的复杂性;且一般的弹流模型并不具备普适性,当工况条件发生变化时,相应的程序不一定能够得到收敛解。齿面织构化的设计参数体现在膜厚方程上,表面织构通常会比表面粗糙度高一两个数量级,其会对弹流润滑模型带来诸多限制。尤其当表面织构的深 / 径比过大时,界面压力变化过于剧烈,容易导致求解不收敛。由于航空高速齿轮常服役于各类极端工况(高温、乏油、高负载),啮合界面膜厚及其微小变化均会对界面压力产生很大的变化,如何构建模型、求解得到精确可靠的收敛解是关键所在。未来面向苛刻服役工况下航空高速齿轮织构化的数值计算,将是整个研究过程的难点之一。

  • 总的来说,从试验探索与验证、理论建模与仿真两方面开展织构参数设计与优化工作,是齿轮副表面织构设计的必经之路。

  • 5.2.2 齿面织构化制造

  • 制造是关键,针对特定的织构参数,获得高效精准的加工技术是齿轮副表面织构化应用的关键前提。从原理上看,微织构激光刻蚀、微磨料射流加工、微织构掩膜电解加工、电射流、微细数控钻铣和超声冲击等特种加工技术均可用于齿轮表面织构加工。

  • 针对典型齿轮副材料和织构参数,选择合适的表面织构加工方法十分重要;而表面织构加工的效率、一致性,以及表面织构产生的强化效应、残余应力及应力集中效应,是加工工艺参数选择时的重要考量指标。

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