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作者简介:

胡勇,男,1991年出生,博士,助理研究员。主要研究方向为能场复合激光表面改性和激光成形数值模拟。E-mail: zjuthuyong@foxmail.com

通讯作者:

姚建华,男,1965年出生,博士,教授,博士研究生导师。主要研究方向为激光增材制造(3D打印)与再制造技术、激光先进制造技术与装备、高能束多能量场复合制造与材料制备技术。E-mail: laser@zjut.edu.cn

中图分类号:TN249

DOI:10.11933/j.issn.1007-9289.20231111002

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目录contents

    摘要

    气孔作为激光增材制造主要的缺陷之一,严重影响其在动态载荷下的力学性能。采用稳态磁场辅助激光熔覆的方法,以在不改变激光工艺条件下实现对气孔缺陷的抑制。为了明晰稳态磁场对气孔缺陷的抑制机制,基于稳态磁场下气孔输运多物理场模型及激光熔覆试验,研究不同磁场强度下熔池的流场分布、气孔输运轨迹、气孔分布及内部的元素分布等规律。模拟结果显示,外加稳态磁场在熔池内产生的感应洛伦兹力增加了流体的粘滞效应,降低了熔池内流体的流速。随着磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T,熔池表面最高流速从 0.137 m / s 降低到 0.054 m / s。试验结果显示:随着磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T,涂层孔隙率从 13.339%降低到 7.768%。结合气孔运动轨迹及熔池元素分布规律,得出稳态磁场抑制气孔缺陷的主要原因为磁阻尼效应降低流体速度,抑制外界氧元素进入熔池与碳元素结合生成气孔,从而降低气孔的数量。研究结果可为磁场辅助激光熔覆、焊接及修复等过程中的气孔缺陷控制提供理论依据。

    Abstract

    Laser cladding, which is characterized by a small heat-affected zone, a low dilution rate, a wide range of material applications, and the ability to achieve excellent metallurgical bonding with a substrate, has gradually been applied in fields such as aerospace and energy. As one of the primary defects in laser additive manufacturing, pores significantly affect the mechanical performance under dynamic loads. A method assisted by a steady magnetic field to suppress pores without changing the laser-processing conditions is employed in this study. A multiphysics model for pore transport under a magnetic field is constructed to elucidate the inhibitory mechanism of a steady-state magnetic field on pore defects. The flow-field-distribution patterns in the molten pool, the pore-transport trajectories, the pore distribution, and the internal element distribution under various magnetic-field intensities are systematically investigated. A steady magnetic field is positioned on both sides of a ductile iron (QT-400) substrate with a carbon content of approximately 3.5 wt.%. Austenitic stainless steel (AISI 316L) powder with a particle size of 50–110 μm is used. The pores are observed using an optical microscope, and the elemental distribution is analyzed using an energy dispersive spectrometer. A two-dimensional transient finite-element model is established using the Comsol6.0® multiphysics coupling analysis software. Without applying a steady-magnetic field, the maximum surface flow velocity of the molten pool is approximately 0.137 m / s. As the magnetic flux density increases to 1.2 T, the induced Lorentz force generated by the external steady magnetic field within the molten pool enhances the viscous effect of the fluid, thus reducing the flow velocity within the molten pool to 0.054 m / s. Subsequently, the transport of pores in the molten pool model is considered and the trajectories of their movement are calculated. Without an external field, pores with diameters of 40 and 80 μm at the front of the molten pool exhibit reciprocating helical motion within the molten pool. As the pore diameter increases to 120 and 160 μm, the buoyancy exerting on them increases, and under the combined action of fluid drag force, they propagate toward the surface of the clad layer. Under steady magnetic-field conditions, as the magnetic-field intensity increases, the trajectories of the rear pores transition to a vertical-upward movement and eventually remain within the molten pool. The front pores undergo periodic motion, thus rendering it challenging for them to be expelled from the molten pool. At a magnetic field intensity of 0 to 0.6 T, the inhibitory effect of the magnetic field on the pores is not prominent. However, as the magnetic-field intensity increases to 1.2 T, the porosity decreases from 13.357% to 7.768%, thus indicating that the steady magnetic field suppresses the pores. Further analysis of the distribution patterns of the elements in the molten pool shows that under a steady magnetic field, the color gradient of Fe is more prominent compared with the case when no magnetic field is applied. Applying a magnetic field increases the disparity in elemental content between the cladding layer and substrate. This augmentation reduces the dilution effect of the substrate elements on the clad-layer composition and is primarily attributed to the magnetic damping effect, which decreases the fluid velocity, inhibits the entry of external oxygen into the molten pool, and hinders the formation of pores through the combination of carbon. Consequently, the number of pores is reduced. The results of this study can provide a theoretical foundation for controlling pore defects in processes such as magnetic-field-assisted laser cladding, welding, and repair.

  • 0 前言

  • 激光熔覆具有热影响区小、稀释率低、材料应用范围广泛,且能与基材实现良好冶金结合等优点[1-3],已逐渐应用于航空航天、能源矿山等领域[4-6]。激光熔覆涉及复杂的物理冶金过程,极易产生诸如保护气卷入熔池[7-8]、层间熔合不良[9-10]、空心粉[11-12]等导致的偶发性气孔以及熔池中碳与氧等反应产生的反应型气孔[13-14]。气孔作为激光增材制造主要的缺陷之一,特别在疲劳载荷条件下不仅影响使用性能及寿命,甚至危及使用安全[15-16]

  • 针对熔覆气孔消除,国内外学者主要是采用调整激光工艺、粉末参数、保护气以及后处理等方法。 2015 年,德国弗劳恩霍夫激光技术研究所 (Fraunhofer ILT)的 ZHONG 等[17]研究激光功率、粉末形态及保护气流速等对激光沉积孔隙率的影响,结果表明通过提高激光功率,使用较细较规则的粉末等可以降低孔隙率,但未能完全消除孔隙缺陷。2019 年,ZHAN 等[18]通过激光熔覆制备了殷钢合金涂层,通过在一定范围内增加热输入量,延长气孔在熔池内部的时间,使其有充分时间从熔池内部逃逸,但这也导致基体的热影响区相应增加。2023 年 TAKUTO 等[19]在添加铝的不锈钢基板上制备 WC-Co 陶瓷涂层,研究表明铝的添加可以使氧元素与铝优先结合,从而阻止氧元素与 WC 分解的碳元素结合生成 CO 气体,进而抑制熔池内的气孔的产生,但这也使得熔覆层的组分发生改变,导致材料性能的改变。因此,如何实现在不改变激光工艺及材料组分条件下对气孔缺陷的消除,具有重要意义。

  • 近几年来国内外学者通过辅助磁场方法实现了对激光熔覆或者焊接气孔直接的抑制。在交变磁场方面,2018 年,德国 BAM 实验室的 FRITZSCHE 等[20]研究发现当施加交变磁场位于焊接基体上方时,向下的自感洛伦兹力对熔池内部具有排气的作用,气孔含量明显减少。2021 年,KANG 等[21]通过交变磁场辅助激光熔覆在 Ti-6Al-4V 上制备了 TiB2 复合涂层,发现通过施加交变磁场搅拌作用,熔覆层内氧元素分布更加均匀,难以聚集反应形成气孔,因此孔隙率得到降低。相比交变磁场,稳态电磁复合场在降低孔隙率方面更具优势。2018 年, ZHANG 等[22]采用电磁复合场对激光熔覆铝硅合金气孔缺陷进行调控,发现电磁复合场形成的定向洛伦兹力,可以增加气孔的浮力,促使气孔上浮,从而抑制涂层内部的气孔缺陷。2021 年,LIU 等[23] 施加电磁复合场辅助激光熔覆 Ni60 时,当磁场强度是 0.2 T,电流是 1.5 kA,制备出了无气孔缺陷的涂层。2020 年 HU 等[24]同样通过电磁复合场形成的向下洛伦兹力,实现对高温合金析出型气孔及铸铁反应型气孔的高效排除。单一稳态磁场作为上述电磁复合场的组成部分,国内外学者也发现了其对气孔缺陷抑制现象,2019 年,DU 等[25]采用纵向磁场辅助选择性激光熔化(Selective laser melting,SLM) 成形 AlSi10Mg 合金,发现施加磁场降低气孔数量,主要原因是在静磁场的阻尼作用下,熔池内部快速而不稳定的马兰戈尼对流被抑制,涡流中的气孔更易被驱动到熔体表面释放到环境中。2021 年, WOLFF 等[26]利用原位 X 射线成像发现在未施加稳态磁场时,熔池和匙孔的不稳定导致在匙孔下方形成孔隙。施加稳态磁场后,抑制了熔池的流动,增加了匙孔的稳定性,从而降低了孔隙的数量。

  • 综上所述,当前针对稳态磁场气孔缺陷消除的研究主要集中于试验研究,其输运行为及抑制机制未能得到完整的阐明。因此,本文拟通过数值模拟及试验方法以获得磁场条件下熔池流体运动、气孔输运、元素分布与气孔分布间的关系,以明晰磁场的作用机制,为稳态磁场辅助激光制造的工业应用提供理论依据。

  • 1 材料与方法

  • 本文激光器为 Laserline 公司生产的 LDF400-2000 型光纤耦合半导体,最大功率 2 kW,波长范围为 940~980 nm,光斑直径为 4 mm,同时搭配同轴式熔覆头和送粉器。稳态磁场位于基体两侧,如图1a 所示。本文基体材料为球墨铸铁 (QT-400),内部组织如图1b 所示,其中碳元素的含量约为 3.5 wt.%,熔覆粉末选用奥氏体不锈钢粉末 (AISI 316L),粉末粒径尺寸在 50~110 μm,其形貌及粒径分布如图1c 所示。表1 为 AISI 316L 合金粉末化学成分(质量分数)。利用线切割切取熔覆层截面,通过镶嵌、磨抛处理、腐蚀等步骤对试样进行处理。利用金相显微镜(OM)观察试样的金相形貌,并通过 python 对金相图像二值化处理分析气孔含量,用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)观察试样显微形貌,并用能谱仪(EDS)分析熔池内元素分布情况。

  • 图1 稳态磁场辅助激光熔覆示意图以及球墨铸铁基体和 AISI 316L 粉末形貌图

  • Fig.1 Schematic diagram of steady state magnetic field assisted laser cladding and the morphology of ductile iron substrate and AISI 316L powder

  • 表1 AISI 316L 合金粉末化学成分(质量分数 / %)

  • Table1 Chemical composition of AISI 316L alloy powder (wt.%)

  • 2 模型建立

  • 稳态磁场辅助激光熔覆熔池过程涉及熔池的固液相变、流动与传热、气孔的输运、磁场感应洛伦兹力等多个物理过程,且通过常规观测手段难以观测内部气孔的输运过程,因此,采用 Comsol6.0® 多物理耦合分析软件建立二维瞬态有限元模型进行分析。该模型耦合了上述物理过程,边界处采用变形网格来模拟激光熔覆增材过程,相关模型方程,基体及粉末材料参数等已在作者前期研究中详细阐述[24],不在此重复说明。仿真模型采用的主要控制方程如下,质量守恒方程为:

  • u=0
    (1)
  • 式中,u 为流体速度矢量。

  • 动量守恒方程为:

  • ρut+ρ(u)u=-pI+ηu+(u)T+FBuoyancy +FDarcy +FLorentz
    (2)
  • 式中,ρ 为密度,p 为压力,t 为时间,I 为单位矩阵, η 为动力黏度,T 代表求转置,FBuayancyFDarcyFLorentz分别为热浮力源项、Darcy 源项、洛伦兹力源项。

  • 在磁场辅助激光熔覆时,熔池内部的流体会形成微小的闭合电路[27],在熔池内流体的不断运动导致其内部的磁通量发生变化,以此在流体中形成感应电流。电流与施加的稳态磁场生产感应洛伦兹力,其表达式为:

  • FLorentz =j×Bj=σ(u×B)
    (3)
  • 式中,ju 电流密度矢量,B 为磁感应强度矢量, σ 为电导率。

  • 能量守恒方程为:

  • ρCPTt+ρCpuT=(kT)
    (4)
  • 式中,Cp 为比热容,T 为温度,t 为时间,k 为热传导系数。

  • 未施加磁场时在熔池内的气孔受到的力有浮力、重力、周围流体对气孔的拖曳力,考虑到熔池内流体不稳定引起的 Basset 力和气泡自身旋转产生的 Magnus 力等与浮力相比很小,所以在此模型忽略这两种力[28]。计算出气泡的雷诺数 Reg 远小于 1,表明熔池流体流动符合属于低雷诺数区域,拖曳力 F 公式为:

  • F=CDρ1v2πdb22,CD=24Reg
    (5)
  • 式中,ρ1为流体密度,v 为流体与气孔的相对速度矢量,db为气孔直径,CD为流体对气孔的拖曳力系数。

  • 当磁场施加时,熔池金属液体受到磁场产生感应洛伦兹力,气孔受到液体拖曳力作用,运动控制方程为[24]

  • dmpVpdt=FBDrag +FBGravity +FLBuoyancy
    (6)
  • 式中,mp 为气孔质量,Vp 为气孔运动速度矢量, FBDrag为流体拖曳力,FBGravity为气孔重力,FLBuoyancy 为气孔浮力。

  • 3 结果与讨论

  • 3.1 磁场对熔池速度场的影响

  • 图2 为不同磁场强度下激光熔覆熔池流场分布,其中激光扫描方向从左至右,曲线(绿色)表示熔池的固液界面。由图2a 可知,熔池表层后方 Marangoni 流区为高流速区域,流动方向由熔池中心指向熔池凝固边界。表层最高流速约为 0.137 m / s,该流速量值与文献中的一致[29]。当稳态磁场从 0 T 增强至 1.2 T,熔池整体流速得到明显抑制,其主要原因为外加稳态磁场所产生的感应洛伦兹力增加了流体的粘滞效应,熔池流场速度降低[30-31]

  • 图2 不同磁场强度下激光熔覆熔池流场分布

  • Fig.2 Flow field distribution of laser cladding molten pool under different magnetic intensities

  • 为了定量分析磁场对流动的影响规律,分别对不同磁场强度下熔池表面速度进行研究。如图3 所示,从图中可以发现表面速度值呈现双峰状态,当磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T,表面速度逐渐被抑制,熔池后部最高流速 Vmax 从 0.137 m / s 降低到 0.054 m / s。

  • 图3 不同稳态磁场条件下表面速度分布

  • Fig.3 Surface velocity distribution under different steady state magnetic field conditions

  • 3.2 无外场气孔直径对其运动轨迹影响

  • 在熔覆过程中,气孔在熔池内部运动逃逸过程中尺寸不断变化[32],并存在气孔间的相互融合[16],因此有必要对不同直径气孔的运动轨迹进行对比研究。选取熔池前部及后部典型位置进行轨迹分析,图4 为气孔初始位置示意图,初始位置 A1(熔池前部)与 B1(熔池后部)。图5 为不同直径气孔运动轨迹图。从图中可以发现气孔在熔池中并非沿直线上升,而是在流体拖曳力作用下呈环状运动。

  • 图4 气孔初始位置示意图

  • Fig.4 Schematic diagram of initial pore position

  • 图5a 为 A1 点位置气孔轨迹图,当气孔直径为 40 μm 与 80 μm 时,其在熔池内部呈往复螺旋运动,难以从熔池中排出或者被凝固前沿捕获。随着直径增大至 120 μm 与 160 μm,气孔所受浮力增大,在流体拖曳力共同作用下运动至熔池表层。图5b 为 B1 点位置气孔轨迹图,当气孔直径为 40 μm 时,由于表层受到强烈的 Marangoni 对流作用,其被 “拖回”至熔池底部凝固前沿,最终保留在熔覆层内部。

  • 图5 不同直径气孔在不同位置轨迹图

  • Fig.5 Trajectories of pores with different diameters at different locations

  • 3.3 稳态磁场对气孔运动轨迹影响

  • 图6 为不同稳态磁场作用下气孔运动轨迹及最终停留位置图。由图6a 可知,随着磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T 气孔轨迹转变为竖直向上运动,这主要是由于当熔池中施加稳态磁场后,内部流场将被严重抑制,使得其呈现竖直上升轨迹,这也导致了气孔运动范围的降低。后部气孔由环状向上运动,转变为振荡往复运动,如图6b 所示,这主要是稳态磁场使得熔池等效粘度增加,熔池对气孔输运的拖曳力也相应增加,由于前部 B1 点气孔处于顺时针运动的涡流,绕顺时针运动气孔被输运至前部熔化界面并停留在该界面。当熔池进一步熔化,气孔又被流体带动作环状运动,如此往复,因此呈现周期性运动,这种运动形式不利于气孔从熔池中排出。图6 c、图6d 分别为气孔最终停留位置。可以发现,在熔池前部 A1 点气孔,随着磁场强度的增加,气孔停留位置趋于表面,但均未排出熔池,熔池前部 B1 点气孔在 1.2 T 时被固化于熔池内部。

  • 图6 不同稳态磁场条件下气孔运动及最终停留位置

  • Fig.6 Pores movement and final stay positions with different steady magnetic field conditions

  • 3.4 稳态磁场对熔覆层形貌影响

  • 图7 为不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层横截面图。分别在熔覆过程中施加 0~1.2 T 磁场强度,每组进行 3 次试验,对熔池几何特征参数求取平均值及标准差值。从宏观角度观察,两组工艺条件下,不同的磁场强度均未对形状造成明显的影响。

  • 图8 为不同稳态磁场强度下熔高、熔宽、熔深及润湿角变化统计图。由图可知,各形貌尺寸参数随着磁场强度的增加,呈现波动变化现象,这也说明磁场对形状未造成明显影响,基体中分解的碳元素含量也未发生明显改变。

  • 图7 不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层横截面图

  • Fig.7 Cross-sectional view of cladding layer under different steady magnetic field conditions

  • 图8 不同磁场强度下的熔高、熔宽、熔深及润湿角变化统计图

  • Fig.8 Statistical graph of melt height, melt width, melt depth and wetting angle under different magnetic intensities

  • 3.5 稳态磁场对熔覆层孔隙率的影响

  • 图9 为不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层气孔分布图。随着磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T,熔覆层内部均存在气孔。气孔在形状上并非完整圆形,这主要是由于合并较小尺寸气孔形成大尺寸气孔[16]。随着磁场强度的增加,熔覆层内部气孔合并现象减少,图9b、9d、9f、9h 及 9j 为对应不同稳态磁场条件下二值化后的熔覆层气孔分布图,红色矩形框范围内为熔覆层统计区域。图10 为不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层孔隙率统计图。在磁场强度 0~0.6 T 范围内,稳态磁场对孔隙率影响较小,随着磁场强度从 0.6 T 增加至 1.2 T 时,孔隙率由 13.357%下降至 7.768%。上述试验现象表明稳态磁场具有一定的抑制气孔的作用,但不能实现完全消除气孔的作用。

  • 图9 不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层气孔分布图

  • Fig.9 Pores distribution of cladding layer under different steady magnetic field conditions

  • 图10 不同稳态磁场条件下熔覆层孔隙率统计图

  • Fig.10 Statistical graph of porosity in cladding layer under different steady magnetic field conditions

  • 3.6 稳态磁场对熔覆层元素分布的影响

  • 图11 为不同外场条件下熔覆层界面处元素分布。SEM 图中含有黑色球状颗粒区域为球墨铸铁基体。通过对比面扫颜色亮度可以发现,在单一磁场条件下 Fe 元素颜色梯度大于未施加磁场,磁场的施加使得熔覆层与基体元素含量差异增大,基体元素对熔覆层成分的稀释作用得到的降低,表明由于熔池流动被抑制,内部元素得不到充分的搅拌。

  • 图11 有无磁场条件下熔覆层界面处元素分布

  • Fig.11 Distribution of elements at the interface of the cladding layer with and without magnetic fields field applied

  • 3.7 气孔抑制机制分析

  • 为了明晰磁场对气孔的调控机理,首先需要理解无外场条件下的气孔形成原因。激光熔覆层中常见气孔有氮气孔、碳气孔与氢气孔等。氮气孔一般成麻点分布且气孔直径小,氢气孔多呈螺钉状[33],与本文气孔形状均不符。因此,激光熔覆球墨铸铁熔池中形成的气孔主要机制[34-35]

  • (1)熔池中的氧气与铸铁内部游离的碳发生反应,产生一氧化碳气体,如式(7)所示:

  • [C]+[O]=CO
    (7)
  • (2)在同轴熔覆过程中熔池表面金属被氧化,氧化物夹杂物被输运到熔池内部。氧化物与溶解在熔池中的碳发生反应如式(8)与式(9)所示,导致更多的 CO 气体被释放到熔池中形成气孔。

  • [C]+[FeO]=Fe+CO
    (8)
  • 2[C]+SiO2=Si+2
    (9)
  • 熔池内部气孔形成与碳、氧元素的输运存在着密切的联系。由理论分析及仿真结果可知,稳态磁场所产生的感应洛伦兹力对流动具有阻尼作用。如图12 所示,对于形成气孔必要的氧元素或者氧化物一般从熔池表面经流体输运进入熔池内部与碳元素反应生成气体,由于碳元素只存在于基体中,熔池底部的碳元素需流体的搅拌作用才能进入熔池内部。熔池流速的降低,使得表面的氧元素或者氧化物难以进入熔池内部。此外,底部基体的碳元素跟随流体输运的能力也相应降低,这使得碳元素与氧化物反应的概率降低,因此,气孔产生数量降低。

  • 由稳态磁场条件下的拖曳力公式可知,气孔在熔池中的运动能力与熔池黏度具有非常重要的联系[36-37],如式(10)所示:

  • FD=mp18ηf+ηMagnetic ρpdb2u-Vp
    (10)
  • 式中, F D 为气孔拖曳力, ρp 为气孔密度,ηf 为动力黏度。由式(10)可得气孔在磁场条件下,由于磁场阻尼效应,形成额外的 ηMagnetic 项,使得拖曳力增加,即气孔将会在更短的时间内与流体的运动趋于一致并跟随流体运动。但需指出的是,磁场的施加使得流体整体的流速降低,气孔的运动范围将得到抑制。这也解释了试验中稳态磁场条件下气孔合并的现象在减少,如图9 所示。从流动的角度分析,稳态磁场不能促进气孔的排除。因此,可得到稳态磁场能够减少孔隙率的原因是其可抑制流体的流动,使得外界的 O2 或者氧化物进入熔池变得更加困难,并抑制内部的 C 元素被流体搅拌至熔池内部,使得反应所需的溶质元素减少,从而降低气孔数量。

  • 图12 稳态磁场抑制气孔机理图

  • Fig.12 Inhibition mechanism of pores by steady magnetic field

  • 4 结论

  • (1)稳态磁场条件下,随着磁场强度从 0 T 增加到 1.2 T,流速逐渐被抑制,最高流速从 0.137 m / s 降低到 0.054 m / s。

  • (2)气孔在熔池内跟随流体呈环状运动,随着磁场强度增加至 1.2 T,前部气孔呈现竖直上升轨迹,后部气孔由环状向上运动转变为振荡往复运动,被保留于熔池内部。

  • (3)试验结果显示,磁场强度从 0 T 增强到 1.2 T,熔覆层纵截面孔隙率从 13.339%降低到 7.768%。

  • (4)稳态磁场阻尼效应降低了熔池内流体的流速,减少了外界氧及基体 C 元素进入熔池,减少了气孔的生成。

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